Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Short description|Major battle of the Wars of Alexander the Great (331 BC)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Gaugamela
| partof = the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]]
| image = File:Alexandre le Grand, vainqueur de Darius à la bataille d'Arbelles.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela'' by [[Jacques Courtois]]
| coordinates = {{coord|36.56|43.44|type:event_region:IQ|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = Iraq#West Asia
| map_relief = yes
| map_size = 300px
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| date = 1 October 331 BC
| place = Probably Tel Gomel (Gaugamela) near [[Erbil]], modern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], north of [[Mount Alfaf]]<ref name= Marciak-Visibility>{{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=M. |last2=Szypuła |first2=B. |last3=Sobiech |first3=M. |last4=Pirowski |first4=T. |title=The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield |journal=Iraq |date=2021 |volume=83 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1017/irq.2021.11|s2cid=240824299 }}</ref>
| territory = Alexander gains Babylon, half of Persia and all other parts of Mesopotamia
| result = Macedonian victory<ref>[https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2797 "Gaugamela"], ''Oxford Classical Dictionary''.</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great#ref59257 "Alexander the Great – Biography, Empire and Facts"], ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]''.</ref><ref>[https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ "Gaugamela (331 BCE)"], livius.org</ref><!-- Do not alter the field 'result' before discussisng it with other users at the talk page. -->
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Image:Vergina Sun WIPO.svg|25px]] [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]
[[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]
| combatant2 = [[Image:Standard of Cyrus the Great (Achaemenid Empire).svg|25px|Achaemenid Empire]] [[Achaemenid Empire]]
| commander1 = {{Plain list| * '''[[Alexander the Great]]'''
* [[Hephaestion]]
* [[Craterus]]
* [[Parmenion]]
* [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]]
* [[Perdiccas]]
* [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]
* [[Cleitus the Black|Cleitus]]
* [[Nearchus]]
* [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]]
* [[Ariston of Paionia|Ariston]]
* [[Simmias of Macedon|Simmias]]
* [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]]
* [[Ariston of Macedon|Ariston]]
* [[Glaucias of Macedon|Glaucias]]
* [[Sopolis of Macedon|Sopolis]]
}}
| commander2 = {{Plain list|
* '''[[Darius III]]'''
* [[Bessus]]
* [[Mazaeus]]
* [[Orontes II]]
* [[Atropates]]
* [[Ariarathes I of Cappadocia|Ariarathes I]]
}}
| units1 =
| units2 =
| strength1 = {{Plain list|
* 47,000<ref name="Green, Peter 2013 p.288" />
* (see [[#Size of Macedonian army|Size of Macedonian army]])
}}
| strength2 = {{Plain list|
* 50,000–120,000<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIRXDwAAQBAJ |title=Brill's Companion to Military Defeat in Ancient Mediterranean Society |last1=Clark |first1=Jessica H. |last2=Turner |first2=Brian |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35577-4 |page=78 |language=en |access-date=30 August 2019}}</ref> (modern estimates)
* 250,000–1,000,000 (ancient sources)
* (see [[#Size of Persian army|Size of Persian army]])
}}
| casualties1 = 1,100–1,500{{efn|100 [[infantry]] and 1,000 [[cavalry]] according to [[Arrian]], 300 infantry according to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]], and 500 infantry according to [[Diodorus Siculus]]}}<hr/>1,000 cavalry<br/>100–500 infantry
| casualties2 = 40,000–90,000{{efn|40,000 according to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]] and 90,000 according to [[Diodorus Siculus]].}}<br/>300,000+ captured (according to [[Arrian]]){{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}
{{Campaigns of Alexander the Great}}
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|35|48}}
| zoom = 3
| float = right
| nolabels = 1
| width = 304
| height = 160
| title = [[Alexander the Great]]
| caption = {{legend|black|current battle}}
| shapeD = n-circle
| shape-colorD = navy
| shape-outlineD = white
| label-colorD = navy
| label-sizeD = 12
| label-posD = left
| label-offset-xD = 0
| label-offset-yD = 0
| label1 = Pella
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|40.75|22.52}}
| mark-title1 = Birthplace July 356 BC
| mark-description1 = [[Pella]] in [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
| label-pos1 = top
| label-offset-x1 = 10
| label2 = Granicus
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|40.32|27.28}}
| mark-title2 = [[Battle of the Granicus]] May, 334 BC
| mark-description2 = [[Granicus River]]
| label-pos2 = right
| label-offset-y2 = -10
| label3 = Miletus
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|37.53|27.28}}
| mark-title3 = [[Siege of Miletus]] 334 BC<br/>[[Siege of Halicarnassus]] 334 BC
| mark-description3 = [[Miletus]]
| label-pos3 = right
| label-offset-y3 = -10
| label4 = Issus
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|36.75|36.19}}
| mark-title4 = [[Battle of Issus]] 334 BC
| mark-description4 = [[Issus (Cilicia)]]
| label5 = Tyre
| mark-coord5 = {{coord|33.3|35.2}}
| mark-title5 = [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)]] January–July 332 BC
| mark-description5 = [[Tyre, Lebanon]]
| label-offset-x5 = 2
| label-offset-y5 = -2
| label6 = Gaza
| mark-coord6 = {{coord|31.52|34.45}}
| mark-title6 = [[Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)|Siege of Gaza]] October 332 BC
| mark-description6 = [[Gaza City]]
| label-pos6 = right
| label7 = Alexandria
| mark-coord7 = {{coord|31.2|29.9}}
| mark-title7 = [[Alexandria|Foundation of Alexandria]] 331 BC
| mark-description7 = [[Alexandria]]
| label-pos7 = bottom
| label-offset-y7 = -5
| label8 = Gaugamela
| mark-coord8 = {{coord|36.56|43.44}}
| mark-title8 = Battle of Gaugamela 1 October 331 BC
| mark-description8 = [[Erbil]]
| label-pos8 = right
| label-offset-y8 = -5
| shape-color8 = black
| label-color8 = black
| label9 = Uxians
| mark-coord9 = {{coord|32.19|48.25}}
| mark-title9 = [[Battle of the Uxian Defile]] December 331 BC
| mark-description9 = [[Susa]]
| label-pos9 = right
| label-offset-y9 = -10
| label10 = Persian Gate
| mark-coord10 = {{coord|30.7|51.6}}
| mark-title10 = [[Battle of the Persian Gate]] 20 January 330 BC
| mark-description10 = [[Persian Gates]]
| label-pos10 = bottom
| label-offset-y10 = -5
| label11 = Cyropolis
| mark-coord11 = {{coord|40.28|69.63}}
| mark-title11 = [[Siege of Cyropolis]] 329 BC<br/>[[Battle of Jaxartes]] October 329 BC<br/>[[Siege of the Sogdian Rock]] 327 BC
| mark-description11 = [[Cyropolis]]
| label-offset-x11 = 2
| label-offset-y11 = -2
| label12 = Cophen
| mark-coord12 = {{coord|35.2|72.5}}
| mark-title12 = [[Cophen campaign]] May 327 BC – March 326 BC
| mark-description12 = [[Kabul River]]
| label-offset-x12 = 2
| label-offset-y12 = -2
| label13 = Hydaspes
| mark-coord13 = {{coord|32.83|73.64}}
| mark-title13 = [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] May 326 BCE
| mark-description13 = [[Jhelum River]]
| label-offset-x13 = 2
| label-offset-y13 = -2
| label14 = Malavas
| mark-coord14 = {{coord|30.7|72.3}}
| mark-title14 = [[Mallian campaign]] November 326 – February 325 BC
| mark-description14 = [[Punjab]]
| label-offset-x14 = 2
| label-offset-y14 = -2
| label15 = Babylon
| mark-coord15 = {{coord|32.54|44.42}}
| mark-title15 = [[Death of Alexander the Great]] 10 or 11 June 323 BC
| mark-description15 = [[Babylon]]
| label-offset-x15 = 20
| label-offset-y15 = -10
}}
The '''Battle of Gaugamela''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɡ|ɔː|ɡ|ə|ˈ|m|iː|l|ə}} {{respell|GAW|gə|MEE|lə}}; {{lang-grc|Γαυγάμηλα|Gaugámēla|the Camel's House}}), also called the '''Battle of Arbela''' ({{lang-grc|Ἄρβηλα|Árbēla|label=none}}), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Army of Macedon]] under [[Alexander the Great]] and the [[Achaemenid Army|Persian Army]] under [[Darius III|King Darius III]]. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.
The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river [[Khazir River|Bumodus]], north of Arbela (modern-day [[Erbil]], in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]]). Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Army of Macedon emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the [[League of Corinth]], and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
== Background ==
In November 333 BC, [[Darius III|King Darius III]] had lost the [[Battle of Issus]] to [[Alexander the Great]], which resulted in the subsequent capture of [[Stateira I|his wife]], [[Sisygambis|his mother]] and his two daughters, [[Stateira II]] and [[Drypetis]].{{Sfn|Briant|2015|p=262}}{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern [[Asia Minor]] (modern-day Turkey).{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=473}}{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} After the battle, King Darius retreated to [[Babylon]] where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=477}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=236}}
Alexander fought at the [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)]], which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the [[Levant]].{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=477}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=53}} Alexander then again fought at the [[Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)|Siege of Gaza]].{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{Sfn|Yenne|2010|p=62}} Persian troop counts in Egypt were diminished due to many soldiers being removed to support the Battle of Issus and dying there.{{Sfn|Freeman|2011|p=145}} As a result, the [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt|Persian satrap of Egypt]], [[Mazaces]], peacefully surrendered to Alexander upon his arrival.{{Sfn|Freeman|2011|p=145}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.1]}}{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=63}}
=== Negotiations between Darius and Alexander ===
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Nawotka writes that "[c]onflicting reports of ancient authors make the reconstruction of peace negotiations hypothetical."{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}} Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#note79 footnote 79]}} Darius reportedly initially requested peace and the safe return of his family, beginning with an offer to pay 10,000 [[Attic talent|talent]]s as ransom, then offering to cede land in Asia Minor west of the [[Halys river]], and eventually offering to recognize Alexander as a co-equal status as monarch.{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}} Alexander rejected all of these offers.{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}}
Historians [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], [[Arrian]] and [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]], writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive,{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12.1–2]|Arrian|1893|2loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2a.asp 2.14]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|3loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#1.7 4.1.7–14]}} and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter [[Stateira II]], as well as all the territory west of the [[Kızılırmak River|Halys river]]. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom.{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12.1–2]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#5.1 4.5.1–8]}} [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys river, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#39 17.39.1–2]}}
King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother [[Sisygambis]], offered him all territory west of the [[Euphrates]], co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] of silver.{{sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. [[Parmenion]] was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54 17.54.1–6]}}
The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy{{sfnm|Diodorus Siculus|1963|1loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54 17.54.1–6]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#11 4.11]|Arrian|1893|3loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp 2.25]}} was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and [[Plutarch]] (1st century).{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12]|Plutarch|1919|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#29.7 4.29.7–9]}} Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp 2.25]}} In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
== Prelude ==
In the late spring or early summer of 331 BC, Alexander headed from Egypt, northeast through Syria, toward the [[Tigris]] river.{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=280-281}} In July or August, Alexander reached [[Thapsacus]], on the [[Euphrates]] river.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=xlvii}}{{sfn|Freeman|2011|p=168}} Arrian relates that Darius had ordered [[Mazaeus]] to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry, and that he fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{Sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} Alexander arrived at the Tigris in late September.{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}
=== Alexander's march through Mesopotamia ===
[[File:Clay tablet. Rev. Alexander's defeat of the last Achaemenid King Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on Oct. 1, 331 BCE and its triumphant entry into Babylon. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|Account of Alexander's victory over the last Achaemenid king Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC and his triumphant entry into Babylon, in [[cuneiform]]. Babylon, Iraq. [[British Museum]]]]
Alexander crossed the Euphrates in the summer of 331 BC.{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=468}} From there, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon.{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|Pietrykowski|2012|loc=Chapter 4}} While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left.{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route.{{Sfn|Creasy|1851|p=127}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}} Captured Persian scouts reported to the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] that Darius had encamped past the [[Tigris]] river.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}} Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}
By contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed [[scorched-earth]] tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.{{sfnm|Diodorus Siculus|1963|1loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17D*.html#55 17.55]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#9.14 4.9.14]}}
After the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]] had crossed the Tigris, a near-total [[lunar eclipse]] occurred on 20–21 September 331 BC.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}} Four days later, Alexander's army spotted members of Mazaeus' cavalry and [[prisoner of war|captured]] one or two, who gave information about the location of Darius' army at Gaugamela, some eight miles away.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7–8]}} In light of the ground-flattening efforts taking place at Gaugamela, Alexander determined that Darius did not intend to change locations, and allowed his troops four days to rest before engaging Darius' army in battle.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}} Following the calculations, the date of the Battle of Gaugamela must have been 1 October in 331 BC.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#note77 footnote 77]}}{{sfn|Briant|2015|p=61}}
=== Strategic analysis ===
[[File:Battle of Gaugamela.jpg|thumb|left|''The Battle of Gaugamela'', [[Jan Brueghel the Elder]], 1602]]
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia.{{sfnm|Ward|2014|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOuVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]|Cummings|2004|2p=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000cumm/page/216 216]}} Classical scholar [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to [[Babylon]], just as [[Cyrus the Younger]] had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the [[Battle of Cunaxa]]. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C&pg=PA282 282–285]}} Historian [[Jona Lendering]], by contrast, argues that Darius intentionally led the Macedonians to Gaugamela, the Persians' preferred battlefield.<ref name = Lendering2004>{{Cite web |last=Lendering |first=Jona |date=2004 |title=Gaugamela (331 BCE) |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528191737/https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ |archive-date=28 May 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023 |website=Livius.org}}</ref>
==Location==
The precise location of the battlefield is not known with certainty, as the ancient sources are sometimes inconsistent and do not provide precise topographical or geographical information.<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} Various sites have been proposed: Tel Gomel,{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=71}} [[Karamlesh]], [[Qaraqosh]],{{sfn|Strauss|2012|p=113}} Tell Aswad, and a mound south of Wardak.<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is Karamlesh – suggested by archeologist Sir [[Aurel Stein]] in 1938.<ref name="LimesReport">{{cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Auriel |last2=Gregory |first2=Shelagh |last3=Kennedy |first3=David Leslie |title=Limes Report: His Aerial & Ground Reconnaissances in Iraq & Transjordan in 1938–39 |date=1985 |publisher=Oxford BAR, International series |isbn=978-0-86054-349-7 |page=127 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8959808}}</ref> All of these sites are located in the [[Nineveh Plains]] of modern-day [[Iraq]], east of [[Mosul]] and west of [[Erbil]], north and south of [[Mount Alfaf|Jebel Maqlub]] (also known as Mount Maqlub and Mount Alfaf).<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}}{{sfn|Strauss|2012|p=113}}
==Size of Persian army==
=== Modern estimates ===
[[File:Indian war elephants at Gaugamela.jpg|thumb|Indian war elephants in the Achaemenid army at the Battle of Gaugamela]]
Although there is general acceptance among modern scholars of Arrian's numbers for Alexander's forces, the opposite is true with respect to the ancient sources' reports on Darius's troop size.{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} According to Bichler, among modern authors, "[t]heir common ground is only that the excessively high numbers given in the ancient sources are of no use."{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160}} Similarly, Worthington writes that the figures given by Diodorus, Plutarch, and Curtius "are absurdly high numbers to show how hopelessly outnumbered Alexander's army was[.]"{{Sfn|Worthington|2014|p=188-189}}
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Units'''
!'''Low estimate'''
!'''High estimate'''
|-
| [[Infantry]]
| < 40,000 {{sfn|Delbrück|1990|page=212|ps=. "... [the Persian infantry was] certainly not more than that of the Macedonians, and probably fewer}}
| 200,000 {{sfn|Schachermeyr|1973|p=269}}{{sfn|Gehrke|2004|p=38}}{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185}}
|-
| [[Cavalry]]
| 12,000 {{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 45,000 {{sfn|Schachermeyr|1973|p=269}}{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185}}
|-
| [[Persian Immortals]]
| 10,000
| 10,000
|-
| [[Greeks|Greek]] mercenaries
| 8,000{{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 10,000
|-
| [[Bactria]]n cavalry
| 1,000{{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
| 2,000
|-
| [[Archery|Archers]]
| 1,500
| 1,500
|-
| [[Scythed chariot]]s
| 200
| 200
|-
| [[War elephant]]s
| 15
| 15
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
| Total
| 52,000+ {{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 268,715
|}
Reinhold Bichler's case study surveyed 20 different sources published between 1920 and 2014, showing that various authors have given widely divergent estimates of Darius's forces, with others remarking that it is not possible to reach any conclusion other than that Alexander's army was outnumbered by the Persians.{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185-187}} [[Hans Delbrück]] estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990}} {{harvp|Warry|1998}} estimates a total size of 91,000; {{harvp|Harbottle|2018}} 120,000; {{harvp|Engels|1980}} and {{harvp|Green|1993}} no larger than 100,000.
=== Ancient sources ===
[[File:Die Schlacht von Gaugamela-Relief.jpg|thumb|A decorative [[Neo-Attic]] relief of the Battle of Gaugamela, with allegories of Europe and Asia standing on the side, 2nd century BC-2nd century AD. [[Rome]], [[Palazzo Chigi]]. 19th-century reproduction by engraving.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuttner |first=Ann L. |year=1995 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft309nb1mw;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print |title=Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups |place=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |at=Figure 59}}</ref>]]
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry,{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.8]}} [[Diodorus Siculus]] put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry,{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#53 17.53]}} Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops{{sfn|Plutarch|1936|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#31 31.1]}} (without a breakdown in composition), while according to [[Curtius Rufus]] it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html 4.12.13]}} Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 [[chariot]]s while Arrian mentions 15 [[war elephants]].{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.8]}} Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary [[hoplite]]s.{{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
According to [[Arrian]], Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of [[Bessus]], the Satrap of Bactria".{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}} The Indians in question were probably from the area of [[Gandāra]].{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}} Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the [[Arachosia|Arachotian]]s under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the [[Sattagydian]]s or the [[Hindush]].{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}}
While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's [[Pezhetairos|pezhetairoi]] were armed with a six-metre pike, the [[sarissa]]. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites{{sfn|Arrian|1893}} and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 [[Immortals (Persian Empire)|Immortals]].{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880}} The Greek mercenaries fought in a [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]], armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenians]], who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
==Size of Macedonian army==
{{See also|Ancient Macedonian army}}
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Units'''
!'''Numbers'''
|-
| [[Heavy infantry]]
| 31,000
|-
| [[Light infantry]]
| 9,000
|-
| [[Cavalry]]
| 7,000
|}
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of [[Macedon]] and the [[Corinthian League|Hellenic League]], along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] and [[Thracians|Thracian]] tributary peoples. According to [[Arrian]], his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} Most historians agree that the [[Army of Macedon|Macedonian army]] consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including [[mercenaries]] and [[hoplite]]s from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of [[peltast]]s with some [[Archery|archers]].{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} The size of the Greek-mounted army was about 7,000.<ref name="Green, Peter 2013 p.288">Green, Peter (2013). ''Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-95469-4}}., p. 288</ref>{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}}
==The battle==
===Initial dispositions===
The battle began with the Persians already present on the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern [[satrap]]ies and from allied [[Scythians|Scythian]] tribes{{clarify|date=July 2019}}<!-- singular or plural? --> and deployed [[scythed chariot]]s, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 [[Indian elephant|Indian]] [[war elephant|elephants]] supported by Indian [[Ratha|chariot]]s.{{sfn|Hanson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA70 70–71]}} However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.<ref>{{Cite book |title=War Elephants |last=John M. Kistler |date=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-6004-7}}</ref>
[[Image:Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC - Opening movements.png|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Initial dispositions and opening movements]]
[[File:Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BCE).jpg|thumb|The Battle of Gaugamela is illustrated in this tapestry, based on a painting by the 17th-century French artist, [[Charles Le Brun]] (1619–90). Le Brun undertook a series of paintings in the 1660s and 1670s depicting the triumphs of [[Alexander the Great]], as homage to his wealthy patron, King [[Louis XIV]].]]
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center, he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the [[India]]n cavalry and his [[Amard|Mardian]] archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. [[Bessus]] commanded the left flank with the [[Bactria]]ns, [[Dahae]] cavalry, [[Arachosia]]n cavalry, [[Persia]]n cavalry, [[Elam|Susian]] cavalry, [[Cadusii|Cadusian]] cavalry and [[Scythians]]. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. [[Mazaeus]] commanded the right flank with the [[Syria]]n, [[Medes|Median]], [[Mesopotamia]]n, [[Parthia]]n, [[Sacia]]n, [[Tapuria]]n, [[Hyrcania]]n, [[Caucasian Albania]]n, [[Sacesinia]]n, [[Cappadocia]]n and [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenian]] cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. According to Curtius, the archers were all [[Amardi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|loc=3.2.7}}: The Hyrcani had mustered 6,000 as excellent horsemen as those nations could furnish, as well as 1,000 Tapurian cavalry. The Derbices had armed 40,000 foot-soldiers ; most of these carried spears tipped with bronze or iron, but some had hardened the wooden shaft by fire.</ref>
The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of [[Parmenion]].{{sfn|Hanson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA61 61]}} Alexander fought with his [[Companion cavalry]]. With it was the [[Paionia]]n and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the [[Thessalia]]ns, Greek mercenaries and [[Thracia]]n cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaean]] mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in the cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
===Beginning of the battle===
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in [[phalanx formation]] towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle, Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his [[Companion Cavalry]]. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
===The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing===
[[File:The battle at Arbela (Gaugamela) between Alexander and Darius, who is in flight (1696).jpg|thumb|Battle of Gaugamela, engraving, first half of 18th century.]]
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
<blockquote>Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered [[Ariston of Paionia|Aristo]] at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.13]}}</blockquote>
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of [[Aretes]]' [[Prodromoi]], likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
<blockquote>The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.14]}}</blockquote>
=== Attack of the Persian scythed chariots ===
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the [[Agrianes|Agrianians]] and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The [[Hypaspist]]s and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
===Alexander's decisive attack===
[[Image:Battle gaugamela decisive.png|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Alexander's decisive attack]]
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant [[wedge]], with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
<blockquote>For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.14]}}</blockquote>
===The left flank===
[[Image:Batalla de Gaugamela (M.A.N. Inv.1980-60-1) 02.jpg|right|thumb|Darius flees (18th-century ivory relief) (National Archaeological Museum, Madrid)]]
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by [[Callisthenes]] and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=3.15}}{{Better source needed|reason=There is no direct way to verify if this info is taken straight from the source given|date=May 2020}}
While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of [[pezhetairoi]] being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, [[Sisygambis]], but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, [[Parthia]]ns and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and [[Hephaestion]], [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]] and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
==Aftermath==
[[File:Alexander entering Babylon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |Alexander entering [[Babylon]]]]
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at [[Battle of Issus|Issus]], substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 [[Attic talent|talents]] captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the [[war elephant]]s. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback<ref>{{cite web |title=How Alexander the Great Conquered the Persian Empire |author=Dave Roos |date=9 September 2019 |url=https://www.history.com/news/alexander-the-great-defeat-persian-empire |website=History}}</ref> with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards [[Babylon]]. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
== See also ==
* [[Military tactics of Alexander the Great]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|22em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
;Ancient sources
* {{Cite book |title=[[Anabasis Alexandri]] |last=Arrian |year=1893 |editor-last=Chinnock |editor-first=E. J. |author-link=Arrian}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Bibliotheca historica|Library of History]] |last=Diodorus Siculus |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1963 |isbn=978-0-674-99464-5 |editor-last=Welles |editor-first=C. Bradford |volume=17 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |author-link=Diodorus Siculus}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Moralia]] |last=Plutarch |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1936 |isbn=978-0-674-99336-5 |editor-last=Babbitt |editor-first=Frank Cole |volume=4 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=379‑487 |chapter=On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander |author-link=Plutarch}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Parallel Lives|Lives]] |last=Plutarch |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1919 |isbn=978-0-674-99110-1 |editor-last=Perrin |editor-first=Bernadotte |volume=7 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=707–741 |chapter=Life of Alexander |author-link=Plutarch}}
* {{Cite book |title=Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus |last=Justin |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |year=1853 |editor-last=Watson |editor-first=John Selby |editor-link=John Selby Watson |location=London |author-link=Justin (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Histories of Alexander the Great |last=Quintus Curtius Rufus |year=1880 |editor-last=Vogel |editor-first=Theodor |author-link=Quintus Curtius Rufus}}
;Modern sources
* {{cite book |last1=Bichler |first1=Reinhold |editor1-last=Luggin |editor1-first=Johanna |title=Battle descriptions as literary texts: a comparative approach |date=2020 |publisher=Springer VS |location=Wiesbaden [Heidelberg] |pages=157–189 |translator-last=Pramhaas |translator-first=Franz |chapter=The Battle of Gaugamela: A Case Study and Some General Methodological Considerations |series=Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-27859-5 |editor-last2=Fink |editor-first2=Sebastian |isbn=978-3-658-27858-8|s2cid=218943609 }}
* {{cite book |last=Binder|first=Carsten|chapter=From Darius II to Darius III|editor-last1=Jacobs|editor-first1=Bruno|editor-last2=Rollinger|editor-first2=Robert|title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ|pages=458–471|isbn=978-1119174288}}
* {{Cite book |title=Darius in the shadow of Alexander |last=Briant |first=Pierre |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780674493094 |location=Cambridge |translator-last=Jane Marie Todd |author-link=Pierre Briant | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j02xBQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last= Creasy |first= Edward Shepherd | author-link= Edward Shepherd Creasy |title= The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World : From Marathon to Waterloo | volume = 1 |date= 1851 |publisher= Richard Bentley and Son | location = London |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lWPztx2j46QC&pg=PR11}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=De Santis |first=Marc G. |year=2001 |title=At The Crossroads of Conquest |journal=Military Heritage |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=46–55, 97 }}
* {{Cite book |title=History of the Art of War |last=Delbrück |first=Hans |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8032-6584-4 |location=Lincoln |translator-last=Walter J. Renfroe Jr. |author-link=Hans Delbrück}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301 |last=Doge |first=Theodore Ayrault |publisher=Tales End Press |year=1918 |isbn=978-1-105-60250-4 |author-link=Theodore Ayrault Dodge}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Greek Army |last=Engels |first=Donald W. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-520-04272-8 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles }}
* {{cite book |last= English |first= Stephen |title= The Field Campaigns of Alexander the Great |date= 2010 |publisher= Pen & Sword |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fbbNDwAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1-84884-066-9}}
* {{Cite book |title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84603-108-3 |location=Oxford |author-link=Kaveh Farrokh}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great |last=Fox |first=Robin Lane |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-192598-1 |author-link=Robin Lane Fox}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great |last=Freeman |first=Philip |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4391-9328-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ApzbQNITyPcC}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto |last=Fuller |first=J. F. C. |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-306-80304-8 |volume=1 |author-link=J. F. C. Fuller}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gehrke |first=Hans-Joachim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsFwzL5A47MC |title=Schlachten der Weltgeschichte: von Salamis bis Sinai |publisher=Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag |year=2004 |isbn=9783406480973 |editor-last=Förster |editor-first=S. |location=Munich |pages=32–47 |language=de |chapter= Gaugamela, 1. Oktober 31 v. Chr. |editor-last2=Pöhlmann |editor-first2=M. |editor-last3=Walter |editor-first3=D. | author-link = Hans-Joachim Gehrke}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography |last=Green |first=Peter |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-95469-4 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |author-link=Peter Green (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age |last=Green |first=Peter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-520-08349-3 |series=Hellenistic Culture and Society |volume=1 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |author-mask=3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree }}
* {{Cite book |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power |last=Hanson |first=Victor Davies |publisher=Anchor Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-307-42518-8 |author-link=Victor Davis Hanson}}
*{{cite book |last=Harbottle |first=Thomas B. |year=2018 |title=Dictionary of Battles From the Earliest Date to the Present Time |publisher=Franklin Classics |isbn=978-0341839699}}
* {{Citation |ref={{sfnref|Magee et al.|2005}} |last1=Magee |first1=Peter |title=The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan |url=https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs |work=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=109 |year=2005 |last2=Petrie |first2=Cameron |last3=Knox |first3=Richard |last4=Khan |first4=Farid |last5=Thomas |first5=Ken |pages=711–741}}
* {{cite book |last=Nawotka|first=Krzysztof|chapter=The Conquest by Alexander|editor-last1=Jacobs|editor-first1=Bruno|editor-last2=Rollinger|editor-first2=Robert|title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ|pages=473–485|isbn=978-1119174288}}
* {{cite book |last=Pietrykowski|first=Joseph|title= Great Battles of the Hellenistic World |date=2012 |publisher=Pen & Sword |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ynp-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4|isbn= 9781848846883}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schachermeyr |first=Fritz |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderdergros0031scha/ |title=Alexander der Große: Das Problem seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Wirkens |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences |year=1973 |location=Vienna |isbn=9783700100003 | language=de | author-link = Fritz Schachermeyr}}
* {{Cite book |title= Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership |last= Strauss |first= Barry S. |publisher= Simon & Schuster |year = 2012 |isbn= 978-1-4391-6448-8 |author-link = Barry S. Strauss}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg |last=Van der Spek |first=R. J. |publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten |year=2003 |isbn=978-90-6258-413-0 |editor-last=Henkelman |editor-first=W. |series=Achaemenid History |volume=13 |location=Leiden |pages=289–342 |chapter=Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship |author-link=R. J. van der Spek |editor-last2=Kuhrt |editor-first2=A.}}
* {{Cite book |title=Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces |last=Ward |first=Steven R. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-62616-032-3 |location=Washington, D.C. }}
* {{Cite book |title=Warfare in the Classical World |last=Warry |first=John |publisher=Barnes & Noble |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7607-1696-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Worthington |first1=Ian |title=By the spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the rise and fall of the Macedonian empire |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0-19-992986-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General |last=Yenne |first=Bill |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-230-61915-9 |location=New York}}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=Michal |last2=Sobiech |first2=Marcin |last3=Pirowski |first3=Tomasz |title=Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela |journal=Klio |date=2020 |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=536–559 |doi=10.1515/klio-2020-1005|s2cid=226279004 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=M. |last2=Szypuła |first2=B. |last3=Sobiech |first3=M. |last4=Pirowski |first4=T. |title=The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield |journal=Iraq |date=2021 |volume=83 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1017/irq.2021.11|s2cid=240824299 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=Michał |last2=Wójcikowski |first2=Robert S. |last3=Morandi Bonacossi |first3=Daniele |last4=Sobiech |first4=Marcin |title=The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare |journal=Studia Iranica |date=2021 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=7–68 |doi=10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Gaugamela}}
* {{YouTube|id=RFrg6Jo4gXw&feature=PlayList&p=68CB508ACE736674&index=6 |title=Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela}} [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]]
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.pothos.org/content/indexe751.html?page=major-battles#gaugamela|title=Major Battles – Gaugamela |last=Welman |first=Nick}}
* [https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html Livius.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909034556/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html |date=9 September 2016 }} tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the [[Babylonian astronomical diaries]]. [https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html Livius.org has a scholarly edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124102122/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html |date=24 January 2019 }} of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle and Alexander's entry into Babylon by [[R.J. van der Spek]].
{{Achaemenid Empire}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Gaugamela}}
[[Category:330s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:331 BC]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire|Gaugamela]]
[[Category:Battles of Alexander the Great|Gaugamela]]
[[Category:Military history of Erbil]]
[[Category:Invasions of Iran]]
[[Category:Seleucus I Nicator]]
[[Category:Antigonus I Monophthalmus]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Short description|Major battle of the Wars of Alexander the Great (331 BC)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Gaugamela
| partof = the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]]
| image = File:Alexandre le Grand, vainqueur de Darius à la bataille d'Arbelles.jpg hehe
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela'' by [[Jacques Courtois]]
| coordinates = {{coord|36.56|43.44|type:event_region:IQ|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = Iraq#West Asia
| map_relief = yes
| map_size = 300px
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| date = 1 October 331 BC
| place = Probably Tel Gomel (Gaugamela) near [[Erbil]], modern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], north of [[Mount Alfaf]]<ref name= Marciak-Visibility>{{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=M. |last2=Szypuła |first2=B. |last3=Sobiech |first3=M. |last4=Pirowski |first4=T. |title=The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield |journal=Iraq |date=2021 |volume=83 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1017/irq.2021.11|s2cid=240824299 }}</ref>
| territory = Alexander gains Babylon, half of Persia and all other parts of Mesopotamia
| result = Macedonian victory<ref>[https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2797 "Gaugamela"], ''Oxford Classical Dictionary''.</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great#ref59257 "Alexander the Great – Biography, Empire and Facts"], ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]''.</ref><ref>[https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ "Gaugamela (331 BCE)"], livius.org</ref><!-- Do not alter the field 'result' before discussisng it with other users at the talk page. -->
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Image:Vergina Sun WIPO.svg|25px]] [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]
[[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]
| combatant2 = [[Image:Standard of Cyrus the Great (Achaemenid Empire).svg|25px|Achaemenid Empire]] [[Achaemenid Empire]]
| commander1 = {{Plain list| * '''[[Alexander the Great]]'''
* [[Hephaestion]]
* [[Craterus]]
* [[Parmenion]]
* [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]]
* [[Perdiccas]]
* [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]
* [[Cleitus the Black|Cleitus]]
* [[Nearchus]]
* [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]]
* [[Ariston of Paionia|Ariston]]
* [[Simmias of Macedon|Simmias]]
* [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]]
* [[Ariston of Macedon|Ariston]]
* [[Glaucias of Macedon|Glaucias]]
* [[Sopolis of Macedon|Sopolis]]
}}
| commander2 = {{Plain list|
* '''[[Darius III]]'''
* [[Bessus]]
* [[Mazaeus]]
* [[Orontes II]]
* [[Atropates]]
* [[Ariarathes I of Cappadocia|Ariarathes I]]
}}
| units1 =
| units2 =
| strength1 = {{Plain list|
* 47,000<ref name="Green, Peter 2013 p.288" />
* (see [[#Size of Macedonian army|Size of Macedonian army]])
}}
| strength2 = {{Plain list|
* 50,000–120,000<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIRXDwAAQBAJ |title=Brill's Companion to Military Defeat in Ancient Mediterranean Society |last1=Clark |first1=Jessica H. |last2=Turner |first2=Brian |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35577-4 |page=78 |language=en |access-date=30 August 2019}}</ref> (modern estimates)
* 250,000–1,000,000 (ancient sources)
* (see [[#Size of Persian army|Size of Persian army]])
}}
| casualties1 = 1,100–1,500{{efn|100 [[infantry]] and 1,000 [[cavalry]] according to [[Arrian]], 300 infantry according to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]], and 500 infantry according to [[Diodorus Siculus]]}}<hr/>1,000 cavalry<br/>100–500 infantry
| casualties2 = 40,000–90,000{{efn|40,000 according to [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]] and 90,000 according to [[Diodorus Siculus]].}}<br/>300,000+ captured (according to [[Arrian]]){{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}
{{Campaigns of Alexander the Great}}
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|35|48}}
| zoom = 3
| float = right
| nolabels = 1
| width = 304
| height = 160
| title = [[Alexander the Great]]
| caption = {{legend|black|current battle}}
| shapeD = n-circle
| shape-colorD = navy
| shape-outlineD = white
| label-colorD = navy
| label-sizeD = 12
| label-posD = left
| label-offset-xD = 0
| label-offset-yD = 0
| label1 = Pella
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|40.75|22.52}}
| mark-title1 = Birthplace July 356 BC
| mark-description1 = [[Pella]] in [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
| label-pos1 = top
| label-offset-x1 = 10
| label2 = Granicus
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|40.32|27.28}}
| mark-title2 = [[Battle of the Granicus]] May, 334 BC
| mark-description2 = [[Granicus River]]
| label-pos2 = right
| label-offset-y2 = -10
| label3 = Miletus
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|37.53|27.28}}
| mark-title3 = [[Siege of Miletus]] 334 BC<br/>[[Siege of Halicarnassus]] 334 BC
| mark-description3 = [[Miletus]]
| label-pos3 = right
| label-offset-y3 = -10
| label4 = Issus
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|36.75|36.19}}
| mark-title4 = [[Battle of Issus]] 334 BC
| mark-description4 = [[Issus (Cilicia)]]
| label5 = Tyre
| mark-coord5 = {{coord|33.3|35.2}}
| mark-title5 = [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)]] January–July 332 BC
| mark-description5 = [[Tyre, Lebanon]]
| label-offset-x5 = 2
| label-offset-y5 = -2
| label6 = Gaza
| mark-coord6 = {{coord|31.52|34.45}}
| mark-title6 = [[Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)|Siege of Gaza]] October 332 BC
| mark-description6 = [[Gaza City]]
| label-pos6 = right
| label7 = Alexandria
| mark-coord7 = {{coord|31.2|29.9}}
| mark-title7 = [[Alexandria|Foundation of Alexandria]] 331 BC
| mark-description7 = [[Alexandria]]
| label-pos7 = bottom
| label-offset-y7 = -5
| label8 = Gaugamela
| mark-coord8 = {{coord|36.56|43.44}}
| mark-title8 = Battle of Gaugamela 1 October 331 BC
| mark-description8 = [[Erbil]]
| label-pos8 = right
| label-offset-y8 = -5
| shape-color8 = black
| label-color8 = black
| label9 = Uxians
| mark-coord9 = {{coord|32.19|48.25}}
| mark-title9 = [[Battle of the Uxian Defile]] December 331 BC
| mark-description9 = [[Susa]]
| label-pos9 = right
| label-offset-y9 = -10
| label10 = Persian Gate
| mark-coord10 = {{coord|30.7|51.6}}
| mark-title10 = [[Battle of the Persian Gate]] 20 January 330 BC
| mark-description10 = [[Persian Gates]]
| label-pos10 = bottom
| label-offset-y10 = -5
| label11 = Cyropolis
| mark-coord11 = {{coord|40.28|69.63}}
| mark-title11 = [[Siege of Cyropolis]] 329 BC<br/>[[Battle of Jaxartes]] October 329 BC<br/>[[Siege of the Sogdian Rock]] 327 BC
| mark-description11 = [[Cyropolis]]
| label-offset-x11 = 2
| label-offset-y11 = -2
| label12 = Cophen
| mark-coord12 = {{coord|35.2|72.5}}
| mark-title12 = [[Cophen campaign]] May 327 BC – March 326 BC
| mark-description12 = [[Kabul River]]
| label-offset-x12 = 2
| label-offset-y12 = -2
| label13 = Hydaspes
| mark-coord13 = {{coord|32.83|73.64}}
| mark-title13 = [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] May 326 BCE
| mark-description13 = [[Jhelum River]]
| label-offset-x13 = 2
| label-offset-y13 = -2
| label14 = Malavas
| mark-coord14 = {{coord|30.7|72.3}}
| mark-title14 = [[Mallian campaign]] November 326 – February 325 BC
| mark-description14 = [[Punjab]]
| label-offset-x14 = 2
| label-offset-y14 = -2
| label15 = Babylon
| mark-coord15 = {{coord|32.54|44.42}}
| mark-title15 = [[Death of Alexander the Great]] 10 or 11 June 323 BC
| mark-description15 = [[Babylon]]
| label-offset-x15 = 20
| label-offset-y15 = -10
}}
The '''Battle of Gaugamela''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɡ|ɔː|ɡ|ə|ˈ|m|iː|l|ə}} {{respell|GAW|gə|MEE|lə}}; {{lang-grc|Γαυγάμηλα|Gaugámēla|the Camel's House}}), also called the '''Battle of Arbela''' ({{lang-grc|Ἄρβηλα|Árbēla|label=none}}), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Army of Macedon]] under [[Alexander the Great]] and the [[Achaemenid Army|Persian Army]] under [[Darius III|King Darius III]]. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.
The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river [[Khazir River|Bumodus]], north of Arbela (modern-day [[Erbil]], in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]]). Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Army of Macedon emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the [[League of Corinth]], and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
== Background ==
In November 333 BC, [[Darius III|King Darius III]] had lost the [[Battle of Issus]] to [[Alexander the Great]], which resulted in the subsequent capture of [[Stateira I|his wife]], [[Sisygambis|his mother]] and his two daughters, [[Stateira II]] and [[Drypetis]].{{Sfn|Briant|2015|p=262}}{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern [[Asia Minor]] (modern-day Turkey).{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=473}}{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} After the battle, King Darius retreated to [[Babylon]] where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=477}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=236}}
Alexander fought at the [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)]], which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the [[Levant]].{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=477}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=53}} Alexander then again fought at the [[Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)|Siege of Gaza]].{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{Sfn|Yenne|2010|p=62}} Persian troop counts in Egypt were diminished due to many soldiers being removed to support the Battle of Issus and dying there.{{Sfn|Freeman|2011|p=145}} As a result, the [[Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt|Persian satrap of Egypt]], [[Mazaces]], peacefully surrendered to Alexander upon his arrival.{{Sfn|Freeman|2011|p=145}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.1]}}{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=63}}
=== Negotiations between Darius and Alexander ===
Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Nawotka writes that "[c]onflicting reports of ancient authors make the reconstruction of peace negotiations hypothetical."{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}} Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#note79 footnote 79]}} Darius reportedly initially requested peace and the safe return of his family, beginning with an offer to pay 10,000 [[Attic talent|talent]]s as ransom, then offering to cede land in Asia Minor west of the [[Halys river]], and eventually offering to recognize Alexander as a co-equal status as monarch.{{Sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}} Alexander rejected all of these offers.{{Sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}}
Historians [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], [[Arrian]] and [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]], writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive,{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12.1–2]|Arrian|1893|2loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2a.asp 2.14]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|3loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#1.7 4.1.7–14]}} and Alexander refused his demands.
A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter [[Stateira II]], as well as all the territory west of the [[Kızılırmak River|Halys river]]. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom.{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12.1–2]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#5.1 4.5.1–8]}} [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys river, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#39 17.39.1–2]}}
King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother [[Sisygambis]], offered him all territory west of the [[Euphrates]], co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] of silver.{{sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=102}} In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. [[Parmenion]] was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54 17.54.1–6]}}
The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy{{sfnm|Diodorus Siculus|1963|1loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54 17.54.1–6]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#11 4.11]|Arrian|1893|3loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp 2.25]}} was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and [[Plutarch]] (1st century).{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12 11.12]|Plutarch|1919|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#29.7 4.29.7–9]}} Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp 2.25]}} In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
== Prelude ==
In the late spring or early summer of 331 BC, Alexander headed from Egypt, northeast through Syria, toward the [[Tigris]] river.{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=280-281}} In July or August, Alexander reached [[Thapsacus]], on the [[Euphrates]] river.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=xlvii}}{{sfn|Freeman|2011|p=168}} Arrian relates that Darius had ordered [[Mazaeus]] to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry, and that he fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{Sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} Alexander arrived at the Tigris in late September.{{sfn|Nawotka|2021|p=478}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}
=== Alexander's march through Mesopotamia ===
[[File:Clay tablet. Rev. Alexander's defeat of the last Achaemenid King Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on Oct. 1, 331 BCE and its triumphant entry into Babylon. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|Account of Alexander's victory over the last Achaemenid king Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC and his triumphant entry into Babylon, in [[cuneiform]]. Babylon, Iraq. [[British Museum]]]]
Alexander crossed the Euphrates in the summer of 331 BC.{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=468}} From there, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon.{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|Pietrykowski|2012|loc=Chapter 4}} While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left.{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route.{{Sfn|Creasy|1851|p=127}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}} Captured Persian scouts reported to the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] that Darius had encamped past the [[Tigris]] river.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}} Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}
By contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed [[scorched-earth]] tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.{{sfnm|Diodorus Siculus|1963|1loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17D*.html#55 17.55]|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|2loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#9.14 4.9.14]}}
After the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]] had crossed the Tigris, a near-total [[lunar eclipse]] occurred on 20–21 September 331 BC.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7]}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}} Four days later, Alexander's army spotted members of Mazaeus' cavalry and [[prisoner of war|captured]] one or two, who gave information about the location of Darius' army at Gaugamela, some eight miles away.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}}{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp 3.7–8]}} In light of the ground-flattening efforts taking place at Gaugamela, Alexander determined that Darius did not intend to change locations, and allowed his troops four days to rest before engaging Darius' army in battle.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=286}} Following the calculations, the date of the Battle of Gaugamela must have been 1 October in 331 BC.{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#note77 footnote 77]}}{{sfn|Briant|2015|p=61}}
=== Strategic analysis ===
[[File:Battle of Gaugamela.jpg|thumb|left|''The Battle of Gaugamela'', [[Jan Brueghel the Elder]], 1602]]
Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia.{{sfnm|Ward|2014|1p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOuVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]|Cummings|2004|2p=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000cumm/page/216 216]}} Classical scholar [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to [[Babylon]], just as [[Cyrus the Younger]] had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the [[Battle of Cunaxa]]. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle.{{sfn|Green|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C&pg=PA282 282–285]}} Historian [[Jona Lendering]], by contrast, argues that Darius intentionally led the Macedonians to Gaugamela, the Persians' preferred battlefield.<ref name = Lendering2004>{{Cite web |last=Lendering |first=Jona |date=2004 |title=Gaugamela (331 BCE) |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528191737/https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/ |archive-date=28 May 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023 |website=Livius.org}}</ref>
==Location==
The precise location of the battlefield is not known with certainty, as the ancient sources are sometimes inconsistent and do not provide precise topographical or geographical information.<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} Various sites have been proposed: Tel Gomel,{{sfn|Fox|2006|loc=Chapter 15}}{{sfn|Green|2013|p=285}}{{sfn|Yenne|2010|p=71}} [[Karamlesh]], [[Qaraqosh]],{{sfn|Strauss|2012|p=113}} Tell Aswad, and a mound south of Wardak.<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}} The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is Karamlesh – suggested by archeologist Sir [[Aurel Stein]] in 1938.<ref name="LimesReport">{{cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Auriel |last2=Gregory |first2=Shelagh |last3=Kennedy |first3=David Leslie |title=Limes Report: His Aerial & Ground Reconnaissances in Iraq & Transjordan in 1938–39 |date=1985 |publisher=Oxford BAR, International series |isbn=978-0-86054-349-7 |page=127 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8959808}}</ref> All of these sites are located in the [[Nineveh Plains]] of modern-day [[Iraq]], east of [[Mosul]] and west of [[Erbil]], north and south of [[Mount Alfaf|Jebel Maqlub]] (also known as Mount Maqlub and Mount Alfaf).<ref name= Marciak-Visibility/>{{sfn|English|2010|loc=Chapter 6}}{{sfn|Strauss|2012|p=113}}
==Size of Persian army==
=== Modern estimates ===
[[File:Indian war elephants at Gaugamela.jpg|thumb|Indian war elephants in the Achaemenid army at the Battle of Gaugamela]]
Although there is general acceptance among modern scholars of Arrian's numbers for Alexander's forces, the opposite is true with respect to the ancient sources' reports on Darius's troop size.{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} According to Bichler, among modern authors, "[t]heir common ground is only that the excessively high numbers given in the ancient sources are of no use."{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160}} Similarly, Worthington writes that the figures given by Diodorus, Plutarch, and Curtius "are absurdly high numbers to show how hopelessly outnumbered Alexander's army was[.]"{{Sfn|Worthington|2014|p=188-189}}
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Units'''
!'''Low estimate'''
!'''High estimate'''
|-
| [[Infantry]]
| < 40,000 {{sfn|Delbrück|1990|page=212|ps=. "... [the Persian infantry was] certainly not more than that of the Macedonians, and probably fewer}}
| 200,000 {{sfn|Schachermeyr|1973|p=269}}{{sfn|Gehrke|2004|p=38}}{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185}}
|-
| [[Cavalry]]
| 12,000 {{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 45,000 {{sfn|Schachermeyr|1973|p=269}}{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185}}
|-
| [[Persian Immortals]]
| 10,000
| 10,000
|-
| [[Greeks|Greek]] mercenaries
| 8,000{{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 10,000
|-
| [[Bactria]]n cavalry
| 1,000{{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
| 2,000
|-
| [[Archery|Archers]]
| 1,500
| 1,500
|-
| [[Scythed chariot]]s
| 200
| 200
|-
| [[War elephant]]s
| 15
| 15
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
| Total
| 52,000+ {{sfn|Delbrück|1990}}
| 268,715
|}
Reinhold Bichler's case study surveyed 20 different sources published between 1920 and 2014, showing that various authors have given widely divergent estimates of Darius's forces, with others remarking that it is not possible to reach any conclusion other than that Alexander's army was outnumbered by the Persians.{{sfn|Bichler|2020|p=185-187}} [[Hans Delbrück]] estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990}} {{harvp|Warry|1998}} estimates a total size of 91,000; {{harvp|Harbottle|2018}} 120,000; {{harvp|Engels|1980}} and {{harvp|Green|1993}} no larger than 100,000.
=== Ancient sources ===
[[File:Die Schlacht von Gaugamela-Relief.jpg|thumb|A decorative [[Neo-Attic]] relief of the Battle of Gaugamela, with allegories of Europe and Asia standing on the side, 2nd century BC-2nd century AD. [[Rome]], [[Palazzo Chigi]]. 19th-century reproduction by engraving.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuttner |first=Ann L. |year=1995 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft309nb1mw;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print |title=Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups |place=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |at=Figure 59}}</ref>]]
According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry,{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.8]}} [[Diodorus Siculus]] put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry,{{sfn|Diodorus Siculus|1963|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#53 17.53]}} Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops{{sfn|Plutarch|1936|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#31 31.1]}} (without a breakdown in composition), while according to [[Curtius Rufus]] it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry.{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html 4.12.13]}} Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 [[chariot]]s while Arrian mentions 15 [[war elephants]].{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.8]}} Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary [[hoplite]]s.{{sfn|Arrian|1893}}
According to [[Arrian]], Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of [[Bessus]], the Satrap of Bactria".{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}} The Indians in question were probably from the area of [[Gandāra]].{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}} Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the [[Arachosia|Arachotian]]s under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the [[Sattagydian]]s or the [[Hindush]].{{sfn|Magee et al.|2005|pp=713–714}}
While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's [[Pezhetairos|pezhetairoi]] were armed with a six-metre pike, the [[sarissa]]. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites{{sfn|Arrian|1893}} and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 [[Immortals (Persian Empire)|Immortals]].{{sfn|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880}} The Greek mercenaries fought in a [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]], armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenians]], who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
==Size of Macedonian army==
{{See also|Ancient Macedonian army}}
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Units'''
!'''Numbers'''
|-
| [[Heavy infantry]]
| 31,000
|-
| [[Light infantry]]
| 9,000
|-
| [[Cavalry]]
| 7,000
|}
Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of [[Macedon]] and the [[Corinthian League|Hellenic League]], along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] and [[Thracians|Thracian]] tributary peoples. According to [[Arrian]], his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} Most historians agree that the [[Army of Macedon|Macedonian army]] consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including [[mercenaries]] and [[hoplite]]s from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of [[peltast]]s with some [[Archery|archers]].{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}} The size of the Greek-mounted army was about 7,000.<ref name="Green, Peter 2013 p.288">Green, Peter (2013). ''Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-95469-4}}., p. 288</ref>{{Sfn|Bichler|2020|p=160-161}}
==The battle==
===Initial dispositions===
The battle began with the Persians already present on the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern [[satrap]]ies and from allied [[Scythians|Scythian]] tribes{{clarify|date=July 2019}}<!-- singular or plural? --> and deployed [[scythed chariot]]s, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 [[Indian elephant|Indian]] [[war elephant|elephants]] supported by Indian [[Ratha|chariot]]s.{{sfn|Hanson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA70 70–71]}} However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.<ref>{{Cite book |title=War Elephants |last=John M. Kistler |date=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-6004-7}}</ref>
[[Image:Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC - Opening movements.png|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Initial dispositions and opening movements]]
[[File:Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BCE).jpg|thumb|The Battle of Gaugamela is illustrated in this tapestry, based on a painting by the 17th-century French artist, [[Charles Le Brun]] (1619–90). Le Brun undertook a series of paintings in the 1660s and 1670s depicting the triumphs of [[Alexander the Great]], as homage to his wealthy patron, King [[Louis XIV]].]]
Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center, he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the [[India]]n cavalry and his [[Amard|Mardian]] archers.
On both flanks were the cavalry. [[Bessus]] commanded the left flank with the [[Bactria]]ns, [[Dahae]] cavalry, [[Arachosia]]n cavalry, [[Persia]]n cavalry, [[Elam|Susian]] cavalry, [[Cadusii|Cadusian]] cavalry and [[Scythians]]. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. [[Mazaeus]] commanded the right flank with the [[Syria]]n, [[Medes|Median]], [[Mesopotamia]]n, [[Parthia]]n, [[Sacia]]n, [[Tapuria]]n, [[Hyrcania]]n, [[Caucasian Albania]]n, [[Sacesinia]]n, [[Cappadocia]]n and [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenian]] cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. According to Curtius, the archers were all [[Amardi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Quintus Curtius Rufus|1880|loc=3.2.7}}: The Hyrcani had mustered 6,000 as excellent horsemen as those nations could furnish, as well as 1,000 Tapurian cavalry. The Derbices had armed 40,000 foot-soldiers ; most of these carried spears tipped with bronze or iron, but some had hardened the wooden shaft by fire.</ref>
The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of [[Parmenion]].{{sfn|Hanson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA61 61]}} Alexander fought with his [[Companion cavalry]]. With it was the [[Paionia]]n and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the [[Thessalia]]ns, Greek mercenaries and [[Thracia]]n cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaean]] mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in the cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
===Beginning of the battle===
Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in [[phalanx formation]] towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
During the battle, Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his [[Companion Cavalry]]. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
===The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing===
[[File:The battle at Arbela (Gaugamela) between Alexander and Darius, who is in flight (1696).jpg|thumb|Battle of Gaugamela, engraving, first half of 18th century.]]
The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
As told by Arrian:
<blockquote>Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered [[Ariston of Paionia|Aristo]] at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.13]}}</blockquote>
The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of [[Aretes]]' [[Prodromoi]], likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
<blockquote>The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.14]}}</blockquote>
=== Attack of the Persian scythed chariots ===
Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the [[Agrianes|Agrianians]] and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The [[Hypaspist]]s and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
===Alexander's decisive attack===
[[Image:Battle gaugamela decisive.png|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Alexander's decisive attack]]
As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant [[wedge]], with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
<blockquote>For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php 3.14]}}</blockquote>
===The left flank===
[[Image:Batalla de Gaugamela (M.A.N. Inv.1980-60-1) 02.jpg|right|thumb|Darius flees (18th-century ivory relief) (National Archaeological Museum, Madrid)]]
Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by [[Callisthenes]] and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.{{sfn|Arrian|1893|loc=3.15}}{{Better source needed|reason=There is no direct way to verify if this info is taken straight from the source given|date=May 2020}}
While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of [[pezhetairoi]] being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, [[Sisygambis]], but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, [[Parthia]]ns and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and [[Hephaestion]], [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]] and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
==Aftermath==
[[File:Alexander entering Babylon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |Alexander entering [[Babylon]]]]
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at [[Battle of Issus|Issus]], substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 [[Attic talent|talents]] captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the [[war elephant]]s. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
Darius managed to escape by horseback<ref>{{cite web |title=How Alexander the Great Conquered the Persian Empire |author=Dave Roos |date=9 September 2019 |url=https://www.history.com/news/alexander-the-great-defeat-persian-empire |website=History}}</ref> with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards [[Babylon]]. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
== See also ==
* [[Military tactics of Alexander the Great]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|22em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
;Ancient sources
* {{Cite book |title=[[Anabasis Alexandri]] |last=Arrian |year=1893 |editor-last=Chinnock |editor-first=E. J. |author-link=Arrian}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Bibliotheca historica|Library of History]] |last=Diodorus Siculus |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1963 |isbn=978-0-674-99464-5 |editor-last=Welles |editor-first=C. Bradford |volume=17 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |author-link=Diodorus Siculus}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Moralia]] |last=Plutarch |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1936 |isbn=978-0-674-99336-5 |editor-last=Babbitt |editor-first=Frank Cole |volume=4 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=379‑487 |chapter=On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander |author-link=Plutarch}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Parallel Lives|Lives]] |last=Plutarch |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1919 |isbn=978-0-674-99110-1 |editor-last=Perrin |editor-first=Bernadotte |volume=7 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=707–741 |chapter=Life of Alexander |author-link=Plutarch}}
* {{Cite book |title=Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus |last=Justin |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |year=1853 |editor-last=Watson |editor-first=John Selby |editor-link=John Selby Watson |location=London |author-link=Justin (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Histories of Alexander the Great |last=Quintus Curtius Rufus |year=1880 |editor-last=Vogel |editor-first=Theodor |author-link=Quintus Curtius Rufus}}
;Modern sources
* {{cite book |last1=Bichler |first1=Reinhold |editor1-last=Luggin |editor1-first=Johanna |title=Battle descriptions as literary texts: a comparative approach |date=2020 |publisher=Springer VS |location=Wiesbaden [Heidelberg] |pages=157–189 |translator-last=Pramhaas |translator-first=Franz |chapter=The Battle of Gaugamela: A Case Study and Some General Methodological Considerations |series=Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-27859-5 |editor-last2=Fink |editor-first2=Sebastian |isbn=978-3-658-27858-8|s2cid=218943609 }}
* {{cite book |last=Binder|first=Carsten|chapter=From Darius II to Darius III|editor-last1=Jacobs|editor-first1=Bruno|editor-last2=Rollinger|editor-first2=Robert|title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ|pages=458–471|isbn=978-1119174288}}
* {{Cite book |title=Darius in the shadow of Alexander |last=Briant |first=Pierre |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780674493094 |location=Cambridge |translator-last=Jane Marie Todd |author-link=Pierre Briant | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j02xBQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last= Creasy |first= Edward Shepherd | author-link= Edward Shepherd Creasy |title= The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World : From Marathon to Waterloo | volume = 1 |date= 1851 |publisher= Richard Bentley and Son | location = London |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lWPztx2j46QC&pg=PR11}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cummings |first=Lewis Vance |year=2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000cumm |title=Alexander the Great |publisher=Grove Press |isbn=978-0-8021-4149-1 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite journal |last=De Santis |first=Marc G. |year=2001 |title=At The Crossroads of Conquest |journal=Military Heritage |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=46–55, 97 }}
* {{Cite book |title=History of the Art of War |last=Delbrück |first=Hans |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8032-6584-4 |location=Lincoln |translator-last=Walter J. Renfroe Jr. |author-link=Hans Delbrück}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301 |last=Doge |first=Theodore Ayrault |publisher=Tales End Press |year=1918 |isbn=978-1-105-60250-4 |author-link=Theodore Ayrault Dodge}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Greek Army |last=Engels |first=Donald W. |publisher=University of California Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-520-04272-8 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles }}
* {{cite book |last= English |first= Stephen |title= The Field Campaigns of Alexander the Great |date= 2010 |publisher= Pen & Sword |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fbbNDwAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1-84884-066-9}}
* {{Cite book |title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84603-108-3 |location=Oxford |author-link=Kaveh Farrokh}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great |last=Fox |first=Robin Lane |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-192598-1 |author-link=Robin Lane Fox}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great |last=Freeman |first=Philip |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4391-9328-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ApzbQNITyPcC}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto |last=Fuller |first=J. F. C. |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-306-80304-8 |volume=1 |author-link=J. F. C. Fuller}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gehrke |first=Hans-Joachim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsFwzL5A47MC |title=Schlachten der Weltgeschichte: von Salamis bis Sinai |publisher=Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag |year=2004 |isbn=9783406480973 |editor-last=Förster |editor-first=S. |location=Munich |pages=32–47 |language=de |chapter= Gaugamela, 1. Oktober 31 v. Chr. |editor-last2=Pöhlmann |editor-first2=M. |editor-last3=Walter |editor-first3=D. | author-link = Hans-Joachim Gehrke}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography |last=Green |first=Peter |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-95469-4 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |author-link=Peter Green (historian)}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age |last=Green |first=Peter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-520-08349-3 |series=Hellenistic Culture and Society |volume=1 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |author-mask=3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree }}
* {{Cite book |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power |last=Hanson |first=Victor Davies |publisher=Anchor Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-307-42518-8 |author-link=Victor Davis Hanson}}
*{{cite book |last=Harbottle |first=Thomas B. |year=2018 |title=Dictionary of Battles From the Earliest Date to the Present Time |publisher=Franklin Classics |isbn=978-0341839699}}
* {{Citation |ref={{sfnref|Magee et al.|2005}} |last1=Magee |first1=Peter |title=The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan |url=https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs |work=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=109 |year=2005 |last2=Petrie |first2=Cameron |last3=Knox |first3=Richard |last4=Khan |first4=Farid |last5=Thomas |first5=Ken |pages=711–741}}
* {{cite book |last=Nawotka|first=Krzysztof|chapter=The Conquest by Alexander|editor-last1=Jacobs|editor-first1=Bruno|editor-last2=Rollinger|editor-first2=Robert|title=A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ|pages=473–485|isbn=978-1119174288}}
* {{cite book |last=Pietrykowski|first=Joseph|title= Great Battles of the Hellenistic World |date=2012 |publisher=Pen & Sword |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ynp-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4|isbn= 9781848846883}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schachermeyr |first=Fritz |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderdergros0031scha/ |title=Alexander der Große: Das Problem seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Wirkens |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences |year=1973 |location=Vienna |isbn=9783700100003 | language=de | author-link = Fritz Schachermeyr}}
* {{Cite book |title= Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership |last= Strauss |first= Barry S. |publisher= Simon & Schuster |year = 2012 |isbn= 978-1-4391-6448-8 |author-link = Barry S. Strauss}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg |last=Van der Spek |first=R. J. |publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten |year=2003 |isbn=978-90-6258-413-0 |editor-last=Henkelman |editor-first=W. |series=Achaemenid History |volume=13 |location=Leiden |pages=289–342 |chapter=Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship |author-link=R. J. van der Spek |editor-last2=Kuhrt |editor-first2=A.}}
* {{Cite book |title=Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces |last=Ward |first=Steven R. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-62616-032-3 |location=Washington, D.C. }}
* {{Cite book |title=Warfare in the Classical World |last=Warry |first=John |publisher=Barnes & Noble |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7607-1696-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Worthington |first1=Ian |title=By the spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the rise and fall of the Macedonian empire |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0-19-992986-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |title=Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General |last=Yenne |first=Bill |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-230-61915-9 |location=New York}}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=Michal |last2=Sobiech |first2=Marcin |last3=Pirowski |first3=Tomasz |title=Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela |journal=Klio |date=2020 |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=536–559 |doi=10.1515/klio-2020-1005|s2cid=226279004 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=M. |last2=Szypuła |first2=B. |last3=Sobiech |first3=M. |last4=Pirowski |first4=T. |title=The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield |journal=Iraq |date=2021 |volume=83 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1017/irq.2021.11|s2cid=240824299 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marciak |first1=Michał |last2=Wójcikowski |first2=Robert S. |last3=Morandi Bonacossi |first3=Daniele |last4=Sobiech |first4=Marcin |title=The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare |journal=Studia Iranica |date=2021 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=7–68 |doi=10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Gaugamela}}
* {{YouTube|id=RFrg6Jo4gXw&feature=PlayList&p=68CB508ACE736674&index=6 |title=Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela}} [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]]
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.pothos.org/content/indexe751.html?page=major-battles#gaugamela|title=Major Battles – Gaugamela |last=Welman |first=Nick}}
* [https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html Livius.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909034556/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html |date=9 September 2016 }} tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the [[Babylonian astronomical diaries]]. [https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html Livius.org has a scholarly edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124102122/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html |date=24 January 2019 }} of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle and Alexander's entry into Babylon by [[R.J. van der Spek]].
{{Achaemenid Empire}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Gaugamela}}
[[Category:330s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:331 BC]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire|Gaugamela]]
[[Category:Battles of Alexander the Great|Gaugamela]]
[[Category:Military history of Erbil]]
[[Category:Invasions of Iran]]
[[Category:Seleucus I Nicator]]
[[Category:Antigonus I Monophthalmus]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt">
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<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Major battle of the Wars of Alexander the Great (331 BC)</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Battle of Gaugamela</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:Error mw:File"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Alexandre_le_Grand,_vainqueur_de_Darius_%C3%A0_la_bataille_d%27Arbelles.jpg_hehe" class="new" title="File:Alexandre le Grand, vainqueur de Darius à la bataille d'Arbelles.jpg hehe"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="300">File:Alexandre le Grand, vainqueur de Darius à la bataille d'Arbelles.jpg hehe</span></a></span><br /><i>Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela</i> by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Courtois" title="Jacques Courtois">Jacques Courtois</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1 October 331 BC</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Probably Tel Gomel (Gaugamela) near <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Alfaf" title="Mount Alfaf">Mount Alfaf</a><sup id="cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marciak-Visibility-1">[1]</a></sup></div><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion load-gadget" data-gadget="WikiMiniAtlas"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Gaugamela&params=36.56_N_43.44_E_type:event_region:IQ"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">36°34′N</span> <span class="longitude">43°26′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">36.56°N 43.44°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">36.56; 43.44</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">
Macedonian victory<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td>
Alexander gains Babylon, half of Persia and all other parts of Mesopotamia</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/25px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/38px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/50px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>
</p>
<a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">Hellenic League</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Achaemenid Empire"><img alt="Achaemenid Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/25px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/38px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/50px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist">
<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></b></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariston_of_Paionia" title="Ariston of Paionia">Ariston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simmias_of_Macedon" title="Simmias of Macedon">Simmias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coenus_(general)" title="Coenus (general)">Coenus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariston_of_Macedon" title="Ariston of Macedon">Ariston</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Macedon" title="Glaucias of Macedon">Glaucias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sopolis_of_Macedon" title="Sopolis of Macedon">Sopolis</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist">
<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></b></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_II" title="Orontes II">Orontes II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atropates" title="Atropates">Atropates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes I of Cappadocia">Ariarathes I</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist">
<ul><li>47,000<sup id="cite_ref-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288-5">[5]</a></sup></li>
<li>(see <a href="#Size_of_Macedonian_army">Size of Macedonian army</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist">
<ul><li>50,000–120,000<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> (modern estimates)</li>
<li>250,000–1,000,000 (ancient sources)</li>
<li>(see <a href="#Size_of_Persian_army">Size of Persian army</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
1,100–1,500<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a></sup><hr />1,000 cavalry<br />100–500 infantry</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
40,000–90,000<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[b]</a></sup><br />300,000+ captured (according to <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893-9">[7]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219143323">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#000;color:#fff}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tnone"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border:none"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_physical_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Gaugamela is located in Iraq"><img alt="Battle of Gaugamela is located in Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/300px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/450px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Iraq_physical_map.svg/600px-Iraq_physical_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="1260" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:12.258%;left:48%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Battle of Gaugamela"><img alt="Battle of Gaugamela" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_physical_map.svg" title="File:Iraq physical map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location within Iraq</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Iraq</span></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1219143323"><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:300px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:300px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Battle of Gaugamela is located in West and Central Asia"><img alt="Battle of Gaugamela is located in West and Central Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/300px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/450px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg/600px-West_Asia_non_political_with_water_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5948" data-file-height="3836" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:32.411%;left:41.13%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Battle of Gaugamela"><img alt="Battle of Gaugamela" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Battle of Gaugamela (West and Central Asia)</div><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of West and Central Asia</span></div></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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title="Template:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Template talk:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaigns of Alexander the Great"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_ofAlexander_the_Great" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Campaigns of<br />Alexander the Great</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Balkans</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign#Thrace" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">Mount Haemus</a> (335 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium" title="Siege of Pelium">Pelium</a> (335 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">Thebes</a> (335 BC)</li></ul>
<dl><dt>Persia</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Granicus</a> (334 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Miletus</a> (334 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a> (334 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> (333 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Tyre</a> (332 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Gaza</a> (332 BC)</li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gaugamela</a> (331 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Uxian_Defile" title="Battle of the Uxian Defile">Uxian Defile</a> (331 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Persian Gate</a> (330 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a> (329 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaxartes" title="Battle of Jaxartes">Jaxartes</a> (329 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spitamenes" title="Spitamenes">Gabai</a> (328 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Rock" title="Sogdian Rock">Sogdian Rock</a> (327 BC)</li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian subcontinent</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign">Cophen</a> (327 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aornos" title="Aornos">Aornos</a> (326 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Hydaspes</a> (326 BC)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mallian_campaign" title="Mallian campaign">Mallian campaign</a> (326 BC)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; width: 304px;"><div class="center" style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></div><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; outline:0px; border:0px; padding:0px; height: 160px; width: 304px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container floatright" style="width: 304px; height: 160px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm" data-width="304" data-height="160" data-zoom="3" data-lat="35" data-lon="48" href="/wiki/Special:Map/3/35/48/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm,3,35,48,304x160.png?lang=en" width="304" height="160" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm,3,35,48,304x160@2x.png?lang=en 2x" alt="Map" /></a>
<div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 0px; left: 0.5px; background-color:transparent; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/306px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="306" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/459px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/612px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 73px; right: 351px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: black; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 116px; left: 242.5px; background-color:transparent; transform: rotate(0deg);"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/52px-Mapscaleline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/78px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/104px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="18" /></span></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 115.875px; right: 13px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: grey; background-color: transparent; font-size: 9px; font-weight:normal;">
1200km<br />820miles</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 283.53764624456px; right: 430.65639250199px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 89.793962118532px; left: 125.18658521683px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 79.793962118532px; right: 160.31341478317px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Babylon</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 88.793962118532px; left: -20.31341478317px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">15</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 89.793962118532px; left: 125.18658521683px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great"><img alt="Death of Alexander the Great 10 or 11 June 323 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 283.38155844441px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 100.05545825594px; right: 20.11844155559px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Malavas</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 101.05545825594px; left: 137.88155844441px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">14</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 283.38155844441px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mallian_campaign" title="Mallian campaign"><img alt="Mallian campaign November 326 – February 325 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 87.838875080309px; left: 290.98490364258px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 85.838875080309px; right: 12.51509635742px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Hydaspes</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 86.838875080309px; left: 145.48490364258px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">13</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 87.838875080309px; left: 290.98490364258px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes"><img alt="Battle of the Hydaspes May 326 BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 71.612932617751px; left: 284.51638608593px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 69.612932617751px; right: 18.98361391407px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Cophen</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 70.612932617751px; left: 139.01638608593px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">12</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 71.612932617751px; left: 284.51638608593px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Cophen_campaign" title="Cophen campaign"><img alt="Cophen campaign May 327 BC – March 326 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 35.136535557589px; left: 268.23160943015px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 33.136535557589px; right: 35.26839056985px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Cyropolis</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 34.136535557589px; left: 122.73160943015px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">11</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 35.136535557589px; left: 268.23160943015px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyropolis" title="Siege of Cyropolis"><img alt="Siege of Cyropolis 329 BC Battle of Jaxartes October 329 BC Siege of the Sogdian Rock 327 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 165.92689754732px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 113.05545825594px; left: 21.42689754732px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Persian Gate</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 101.05545825594px; left: 20.42689754732px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">10</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 102.05545825594px; left: 165.92689754732px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate"><img alt="Battle of the Persian Gate 20 January 330 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 92.145163187527px; left: 146.9185345519px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 82.145163187527px; left: 163.4185345519px; text-align: left; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Uxians</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 91.145163187527px; left: 1.4185345519px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">9</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 92.145163187527px; left: 146.9185345519px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Uxian_Defile" title="Battle of the Uxian Defile"><img alt="Battle of the Uxian Defile December 331 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 62.088422623611px; left: 119.62592977339px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000000;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 57.088422623611px; left: 136.12592977339px; text-align: left; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000000; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Gaugamela</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 61.088422623611px; left: -25.87407022661px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">8</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 98.74735397718px; left: 42.798098442641px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 109.74735397718px; left: -101.70190155736px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Alexandria</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 97.74735397718px; left: -102.70190155736px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">7</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 98.74735397718px; left: 42.798098442641px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria"><img alt="Foundation of Alexandria 331 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 68.615427287171px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 85.115427287171px; text-align: left; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Gaza</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 95.62099505408px; left: -76.884572712829px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">6</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 96.62099505408px; left: 68.615427287171px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)"><img alt="Siege of Gaza October 332 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 84.656664096155px; left: 72.871030942862px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 82.656664096155px; right: 230.62896905714px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Tyre</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 83.656664096155px; left: -72.628969057138px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">5</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 84.656664096155px; left: 72.871030942862px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)"><img alt="Siege of Tyre (332 BC) January–July 332 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 78.488427768375px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 60.744584259036px; right: 227.01157223162px; text-align: right; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Issus</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 59.744584259036px; left: -67.011572231625px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">4</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 60.744584259036px; left: 78.488427768375px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus"><img alt="Battle of Issus 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 55.192516082837px; left: 27.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 45.192516082837px; left: 44.431856338758px; text-align: left; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Miletus</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 54.192516082837px; left: -117.56814366124px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">3</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 55.192516082837px; left: 27.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus"><img alt="Siege of Miletus 334 BC Siege of Halicarnassus 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div>
<div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 34.838941530532px; left: 27.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 24.838941530532px; left: 44.431856338758px; text-align: left; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Granicus</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 33.838941530532px; left: -117.56814366124px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">2</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 34.838941530532px; left: 27.931856338758px; width: 14px; height: 14px; background-color: transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus"><img alt="Battle of the Granicus May, 334 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/16px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/32px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div>
<div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 31.628593740613px; left: 0.9229584706351px; width: 14px; height: 14px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; bottom: 129.37140625939px; left: -133.57704152936px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color: transparent; line-height: 0.98; transform: rotate(0deg)"><span style="color: #000080; background-color: transparent; font-size: 12px; font-weight:normal;">
Pella</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 30.628593740613px; left: -144.57704152936px; width: 304px; text-align: center; background-color:transparent; line-height: 1.3;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 10px; font-weight:bold;">1</span></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute;top: 9px;left: 268px"><span style="color: white; opacity:100; font-size: 19px; font-weight:normal; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-kartographer-maplink no-icon" data-mw-kartographer="maplink" data-style="osm-intl" href="/wiki/Special:Map/4/35/48/en" data-zoom="4" data-lat="35" data-lon="48" data-overlays="["_f0521577b9e36501071a56369bd649d4030510f3"]"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Click for interactive fullscreen map with links to nearby articles"> </span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:black; color:white;"> </span> current battle</div></div></div></div>
<p>The <b>Battle of Gaugamela</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ɔː/: 'au' in 'fraud'">ɔː</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">GAW</span>-gə-<span style="font-size:90%">MEE</span>-lə</i></a>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Γαυγάμηλα</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Gaugámēla</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'the Camel's House'), also called the <b>Battle of Arbela</b> (<span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἄρβηλα</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Árbēla</i></span>), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Army">Persian Army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">King Darius III</a>. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.
</p><p>The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river <a href="/wiki/Khazir_River" title="Khazir River">Bumodus</a>, north of Arbela (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a>). Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Army of Macedon emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a>, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Negotiations_between_Darius_and_Alexander"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Negotiations between Darius and Alexander</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Prelude"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Prelude</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Alexander's_march_through_Mesopotamia"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Alexander's march through Mesopotamia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Strategic_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Strategic analysis</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Location"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Location</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Size_of_Persian_army"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Size of Persian army</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Modern_estimates"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Modern estimates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Ancient_sources"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Size_of_Macedonian_army"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Size of Macedonian army</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#The_battle"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">The battle</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Initial_dispositions"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Initial dispositions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Beginning_of_the_battle"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Beginning of the battle</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#The_cavalry_battle_in_the_Hellenic_right_wing"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Attack_of_the_Persian_scythed_chariots"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Attack of the Persian scythed chariots</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Alexander's_decisive_attack"><span class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Alexander's decisive attack</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#The_left_flank"><span class="tocnumber">6.6</span> <span class="toctext">The left flank</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Aftermath"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>In November 333 BC, <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">King Darius III</a> had lost the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, which resulted in the subsequent capture of <a href="/wiki/Stateira_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateira I">his wife</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">his mother</a> and his two daughters, <a href="/wiki/Stateira_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateira II">Stateira II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drypetis" title="Drypetis">Drypetis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2015262_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2015262-10">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102-11">[9]</a></sup> Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> (modern-day Turkey).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021473_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021473-12">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102-11">[9]</a></sup> After the battle, King Darius retreated to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477-13">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013236_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013236-14">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Alexander fought at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a>, which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477-13">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201053_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201053-15">[13]</a></sup> Alexander then again fought at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201062_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201062-17">[15]</a></sup> Persian troop counts in Egypt were diminished due to many soldiers being removed to support the Battle of Issus and dying there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145-18">[16]</a></sup> As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Persian satrap of Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mazaces" title="Mazaces">Mazaces</a>, peacefully surrendered to Alexander upon his arrival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145-18">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.1]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.1]-19">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201063_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201063-20">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Negotiations_between_Darius_and_Alexander">Negotiations between Darius and Alexander</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Negotiations between Darius and Alexander"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Nawotka writes that "[c]onflicting reports of ancient authors make the reconstruction of peace negotiations hypothetical."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup> Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtmlnote79_footnote_79]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtmlnote79_footnote_79]-21">[19]</a></sup> Darius reportedly initially requested peace and the safe return of his family, beginning with an offer to pay 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent" title="Attic talent">talents</a> as ransom, then offering to cede land in Asia Minor west of the <a href="/wiki/Halys_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys river">Halys river</a>, and eventually offering to recognize Alexander as a co-equal status as monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup> Alexander rejected all of these offers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102-11">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historians <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a>, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2aasp_2.14]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html17_4.1.7–14]_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2aasp_2.14]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html17_4.1.7–14]-22">[20]</a></sup> and Alexander refused his demands.
</p><p>A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter <a href="/wiki/Stateira_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateira II">Stateira II</a>, as well as all the territory west of the <a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1l%C4%B1rmak_River" title="Kızılırmak River">Halys river</a>. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html51_4.5.1–8]_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html51_4.5.1–8]-23">[21]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys river, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtml39_17.39.1–2]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtml39_17.39.1–2]-24">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, offered him all territory west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a> of silver.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102-11">[9]</a></sup> In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a> was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]-25">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html11_4.11]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html11_4.11]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]-26">[24]</a></sup> was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1st century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12]Plutarch1919[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html297_4.29.7–9]_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12]Plutarch1919[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html297_4.29.7–9]-27">[25]</a></sup> Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]-28">[26]</a></sup> In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prelude">Prelude</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prelude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>In the late spring or early summer of 331 BC, Alexander headed from Egypt, northeast through Syria, toward the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013280-281_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013280-281-29">[27]</a></sup> In July or August, Alexander reached <a href="/wiki/Thapsacus" title="Thapsacus">Thapsacus</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013xlvii_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013xlvii-30">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011168_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011168-31">[29]</a></sup> Arrian relates that Darius had ordered <a href="/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a> to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry, and that he fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]-32">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34">[32]</a></sup> Alexander arrived at the Tigris in late September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35">[33]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Alexander.27s_march_through_Mesopotamia"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Alexander's_march_through_Mesopotamia">Alexander's march through Mesopotamia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alexander's march through Mesopotamia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clay_tablet._Rev._Alexander%27s_defeat_of_the_last_Achaemenid_King_Darius_III_at_the_battle_of_Gaugamela_on_Oct._1,_331_BCE_and_its_triumphant_entry_into_Babylon._From_Babylon,_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Clay_tablet._Rev._Alexander%27s_defeat_of_the_last_Achaemenid_King_Darius_III_at_the_battle_of_Gaugamela_on_Oct._1%2C_331_BCE_and_its_triumphant_entry_into_Babylon._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Clay_tablet._Rev._Alexander%27s_defeat_of_the_last_Achaemenid_King_Darius_III_at_the_battle_of_Gaugamela_on_Oct._1%2C_331_BCE_and_its_triumphant_entry_into_Babylon._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Clay_tablet._Rev._Alexander%27s_defeat_of_the_last_Achaemenid_King_Darius_III_at_the_battle_of_Gaugamela_on_Oct._1%2C_331_BCE_and_its_triumphant_entry_into_Babylon._From_Babylon%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3449" data-file-height="3080" /></a><figcaption>Account of Alexander's victory over the last Achaemenid king Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela on 1 October 331 BC and his triumphant entry into Babylon, in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>. Babylon, Iraq. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Alexander crossed the Euphrates in the summer of 331 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBinder2021468_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBinder2021468-36">[34]</a></sup> From there, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPietrykowski2012Chapter_4_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrykowski2012Chapter_4-37">[35]</a></sup> While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34">[32]</a></sup> The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreasy1851127_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreasy1851127-38">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35">[33]</a></sup> Captured Persian scouts reported to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a> that Darius had encamped past the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35">[33]</a></sup> Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]-32">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>By contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed <a href="/wiki/Scorched-earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorched-earth">scorched-earth</a> tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Dhtml55_17.55]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html914_4.9.14]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Dhtml55_17.55]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html914_4.9.14]-39">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonian army</a> had crossed the Tigris, a near-total <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a> occurred on 20–21 September 331 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]-32">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286-40">[38]</a></sup> Four days later, Alexander's army spotted members of Mazaeus' cavalry and <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">captured</a> one or two, who gave information about the location of Darius' army at Gaugamela, some eight miles away.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286-40">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7–8]_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7–8]-41">[39]</a></sup> In light of the ground-flattening efforts taking place at Gaugamela, Alexander determined that Darius did not intend to change locations, and allowed his troops four days to rest before engaging Darius' army in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286-40">[38]</a></sup> Following the calculations, the date of the Battle of Gaugamela must have been 1 October in 331 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtmlnote77_footnote_77]_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtmlnote77_footnote_77]-42">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant201561_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant201561-43">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Strategic_analysis">Strategic analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Strategic analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Gaugamela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5591" data-file-height="3546" /></a><figcaption><i>The Battle of Gaugamela</i>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Brueghel_the_Elder" title="Jan Brueghel the Elder">Jan Brueghel the Elder</a>, 1602</figcaption></figure>
<p>Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOuVAgAAQBAJpgPA24_24]Cummings2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsalexandergreat0000cummpage216_216]_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOuVAgAAQBAJpgPA24_24]Cummings2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsalexandergreat0000cummpage216_216]-44">[42]</a></sup> Classical scholar <a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)" title="Peter Green (historian)">Peter Green</a> thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, just as <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</a> had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Battle of Cunaxa</a>. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSYo6c1iEL_4CpgPA282_282–285]_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSYo6c1iEL_4CpgPA282_282–285]-45">[43]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Jona_Lendering" title="Jona Lendering">Jona Lendering</a>, by contrast, argues that Darius intentionally led the Macedonians to Gaugamela, the Persians' preferred battlefield.<sup id="cite_ref-Lendering2004_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lendering2004-46">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Location">Location</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The precise location of the battlefield is not known with certainty, as the ancient sources are sometimes inconsistent and do not provide precise topographical or geographical information.<sup id="cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marciak-Visibility-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34">[32]</a></sup> Various sites have been proposed: Tel Gomel,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201071_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201071-47">[45]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karamlesh" title="Karamlesh">Karamlesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qaraqosh" title="Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113-48">[46]</a></sup> Tell Aswad, and a mound south of Wardak.<sup id="cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marciak-Visibility-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34">[32]</a></sup> The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is Karamlesh – suggested by archeologist Sir <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Aurel Stein</a> in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-LimesReport_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LimesReport-49">[47]</a></sup> All of these sites are located in the <a href="/wiki/Nineveh_Plains" title="Nineveh Plains">Nineveh Plains</a> of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, east of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and west of <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, north and south of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Alfaf" title="Mount Alfaf">Jebel Maqlub</a> (also known as Mount Maqlub and Mount Alfaf).<sup id="cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marciak-Visibility-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113-48">[46]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Size_of_Persian_army">Size of Persian army</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Size of Persian army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_estimates">Modern estimates</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern estimates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg/220px-Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg/330px-Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg/440px-Indian_war_elephants_at_Gaugamela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>Indian war elephants in the Achaemenid army at the Battle of Gaugamela</figcaption></figure>
<p>Although there is general acceptance among modern scholars of Arrian's numbers for Alexander's forces, the opposite is true with respect to the ancient sources' reports on Darius's troop size.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161-50">[48]</a></sup> According to Bichler, among modern authors, "[t]heir common ground is only that the excessively high numbers given in the ancient sources are of no use."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-51">[49]</a></sup> Similarly, Worthington writes that the figures given by Diodorus, Plutarch, and Curtius "are absurdly high numbers to show how hopelessly outnumbered Alexander's army was[.]"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthington2014188-189_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthington2014188-189-52">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th><b>Units</b>
</th>
<th><b>Low estimate</b>
</th>
<th><b>High estimate</b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a>
</td>
<td>< 40,000 <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990212_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990212-53">[51]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>200,000 <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269-54">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGehrke200438_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGehrke200438-55">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-56">[54]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a>
</td>
<td>12,000 <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990-57">[55]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>45,000 <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269-54">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-56">[54]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Persian_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Immortals">Persian Immortals</a>
</td>
<td>10,000
</td>
<td>10,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> mercenaries
</td>
<td>8,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990-57">[55]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>10,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrian</a> cavalry
</td>
<td>1,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893-9">[7]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>2,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">Archers</a>
</td>
<td>1,500
</td>
<td>1,500
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Scythed_chariot" title="Scythed chariot">Scythed chariots</a>
</td>
<td>200
</td>
<td>200
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">War elephants</a>
</td>
<td>15
</td>
<td>15
</td></tr>
<tr style="background:lightgrey;">
<td>Total
</td>
<td>52,000+ <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990-57">[55]</a></sup>
</td>
<td>268,715
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Reinhold Bichler's case study surveyed 20 different sources published between 1920 and 2014, showing that various authors have given widely divergent estimates of Darius's forces, with others remarking that it is not possible to reach any conclusion other than that Alexander's army was outnumbered by the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-187_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-187-58">[56]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Hans Delbrück">Hans Delbrück</a> estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990-57">[55]</a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFWarry1998">Warry (1998)</a> estimates a total size of 91,000; <a href="#CITEREFHarbottle2018">Harbottle (2018)</a> 120,000; <a href="#CITEREFEngels1980">Engels (1980)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFGreen1993">Green (1993)</a> no larger than 100,000.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg/220px-Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg/330px-Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg/440px-Die_Schlacht_von_Gaugamela-Relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A decorative <a href="/wiki/Neo-Attic" title="Neo-Attic">Neo-Attic</a> relief of the Battle of Gaugamela, with allegories of Europe and Asia standing on the side, 2nd century BC-2nd century AD. <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Chigi" class="mw-redirect" title="Palazzo Chigi">Palazzo Chigi</a>. 19th-century reproduction by engraving.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]-60">[58]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml53_17.53]_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml53_17.53]-61">[59]</a></sup> Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html31_31.1]_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html31_31.1]-62">[60]</a></sup> (without a breakdown in composition), while according to <a href="/wiki/Curtius_Rufus" title="Curtius Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a> it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html_4.12.13]_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html_4.12.13]-63">[61]</a></sup> Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> while Arrian mentions 15 <a href="/wiki/War_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="War elephants">war elephants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]-60">[58]</a></sup> Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893-9">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a>, the Satrap of Bactria".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714-64">[62]</a></sup> The Indians in question were probably from the area of <a href="/wiki/Gand%C4%81ra" title="Gandāra">Gandāra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714-64">[62]</a></sup> Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachotians</a> under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the <a href="/wiki/Sattagydian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sattagydian">Sattagydians</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Hindush" title="Hindush">Hindush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714-64">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's <a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">pezhetairoi</a> were armed with a six-metre pike, the <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a>. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893-9">[7]</a></sup> and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Immortals_(Persian_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortals (Persian Empire)">Immortals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880-65">[63]</a></sup> The Greek mercenaries fought in a <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a>, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the <a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenians</a>, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Size_of_Macedonian_army">Size of Macedonian army</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Size of Macedonian army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a></div>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th><b>Units</b>
</th>
<th><b>Numbers</b>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Heavy_infantry" title="Heavy infantry">Heavy infantry</a>
</td>
<td>31,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry">Light infantry</a>
</td>
<td>9,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a>
</td>
<td>7,000
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Corinthian League">Hellenic League</a>, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracian</a> tributary peoples. According to <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161-50">[48]</a></sup> Most historians agree that the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of Macedon">Macedonian army</a> consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a> from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a> with some <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161-50">[48]</a></sup> The size of the Greek-mounted army was about 7,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161-50">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_battle">The battle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The battle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Initial_dispositions">Initial dispositions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Initial dispositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The battle began with the Persians already present on the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapies</a> and from allied <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a> tribes<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and deployed <a href="/wiki/Scythed_chariot" title="Scythed chariot">scythed chariots</a>, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 <a href="/wiki/Indian_elephant" title="Indian elephant">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">elephants</a> supported by Indian <a href="/wiki/Ratha" title="Ratha">chariots</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA70_70–71]_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA70_70–71]-66">[64]</a></sup> However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Gaugamela,_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png/300px-Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png/450px-Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png/600px-Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>Initial dispositions and opening movements</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Gaugamela_(1_October_331_BCE).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Gaugamela_%281_October_331_BCE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="818" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Gaugamela is illustrated in this tapestry, based on a painting by the 17th-century French artist, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Le_Brun" title="Charles Le Brun">Charles Le Brun</a> (1619–90). Le Brun undertook a series of paintings in the 1660s and 1670s depicting the triumphs of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, as homage to his wealthy patron, King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center, he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> cavalry and his <a href="/wiki/Amard" class="mw-redirect" title="Amard">Mardian</a> archers.
</p><p>On both flanks were the cavalry. <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a> commanded the left flank with the <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a> cavalry, <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosian</a> cavalry, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> cavalry, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Susian</a> cavalry, <a href="/wiki/Cadusii" title="Cadusii">Cadusian</a> cavalry and <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. <a href="/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a> commanded the right flank with the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacia">Sacian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tapuria" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapuria">Tapurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacesinia" title="Sacesinia">Sacesinian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenian</a> cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. According to Curtius, the archers were all <a href="/wiki/Amardi" title="Amardi">Amardi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA61_61]_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA61_61]-69">[67]</a></sup> Alexander fought with his <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Companion cavalry</a>. With it was the <a href="/wiki/Paionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paionia">Paionian</a> and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the <a href="/wiki/Thessalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalia">Thessalians</a>, Greek mercenaries and <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracian</a> cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right.
</p><p>On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(ancient_region)" title="Achaea (ancient region)">Achaean</a> mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in the cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Beginning_of_the_battle">Beginning of the battle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Beginning of the battle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx formation</a> towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left.
</p><p>During the battle, Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his <a href="/wiki/Companion_Cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Companion Cavalry">Companion Cavalry</a>. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_cavalry_battle_in_the_Hellenic_right_wing">The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_battle_at_Arbela_(Gaugamela)_between_Alexander_and_Darius,_who_is_in_flight_(1696).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg/220px-The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg/330px-The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg/440px-The_battle_at_Arbela_%28Gaugamela%29_between_Alexander_and_Darius%2C_who_is_in_flight_%281696%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Gaugamela, engraving, first half of 18th century.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack.
</p><p>As told by Arrian:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered <a href="/wiki/Ariston_of_Paionia" title="Ariston of Paionia">Aristo</a> at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.13]_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.13]-70">[68]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of <a href="/wiki/Aretes" title="Aretes">Aretes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Prodromoi" title="Prodromoi">Prodromoi</a>, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself.
</p>
<blockquote><p>The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]-71">[69]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Attack_of_the_Persian_scythed_chariots">Attack of the Persian scythed chariots</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Attack of the Persian scythed chariots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the <a href="/wiki/Agrianes" title="Agrianes">Agrianians</a> and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The <a href="/wiki/Hypaspist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspist">Hypaspists</a> and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.
</p>
<h3><span id="Alexander.27s_decisive_attack"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Alexander's_decisive_attack">Alexander's decisive attack</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alexander's decisive attack"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png/300px-Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png/450px-Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png/600px-Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's decisive attack</figcaption></figure>
<p>As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant <a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">wedge</a>, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account:
</p>
<blockquote><p>For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]-71">[69]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_left_flank">The left flank</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The left flank"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_de_Gaugamela_(M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg/220px-Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg/330px-Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg/440px-Batalla_de_Gaugamela_%28M.A.N._Inv.1980-60-1%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption>Darius flees (18th-century ivory relief) (National Archaeological Museum, Madrid)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian18933.15_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian18933.15-72">[70]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="There is no direct way to verify if this info is taken straight from the source given (May 2020)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of <a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a> being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, <a href="/wiki/Sisygambis" title="Sisygambis">Sisygambis</a>, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting.
</p><p>What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coenus_(general)" title="Coenus (general)">Coenus</a> and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg/300px-Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg/450px-Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg/600px-Alexander_entering_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1825" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Alexander entering <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a>, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 <a href="/wiki/Attic_talent" title="Attic talent">talents</a> captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a>. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories.
</p><p>Darius managed to escape by horseback<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></sup> with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point, the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal.
</p><p>The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Military tactics of Alexander the Great">Military tactics of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">100 <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> and 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> according to <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, 300 infantry according to <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a>, and 500 infantry according to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">40,000 according to <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Curtius Rufus</a> and 90,000 according to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Marciak-Visibility-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marciak-Visibility_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarciakSzypułaSobiechPirowski2021" class="citation journal cs1">Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". <i>Iraq</i>. <b>83</b>: 87–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Firq.2021.11">10.1017/irq.2021.11</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240824299">240824299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Gaugamela+and+the+Question+of+Visibility+on+the+Battlefield&rft.volume=83&rft.pages=87-103&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Firq.2021.11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240824299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Marciak&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Szypu%C5%82a%2C+B.&rft.au=Sobiech%2C+M.&rft.au=Pirowski%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2797">"Gaugamela"</a>, <i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great#ref59257">"Alexander the Great – Biography, Empire and Facts"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/">"Gaugamela (331 BCE)"</a>, livius.org</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green,_Peter_2013_p.288_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Green, Peter (2013). <i>Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography</i>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95469-4">978-0-520-95469-4</a>., p. 288</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClarkTurner2017" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Jessica H.; Turner, Brian (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gIRXDwAAQBAJ"><i>Brill's Companion to Military Defeat in Ancient Mediterranean Society</i></a>. Brill. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35577-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-35577-4"><bdi>978-90-04-35577-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Military+Defeat+in+Ancient+Mediterranean+Society&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-90-04-35577-4&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Jessica+H.&rft.au=Turner%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgIRXDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2015262-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant2015262_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2015">Briant 2015</a>, p. 262.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrokh2007102_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrokh2007">Farrokh 2007</a>, p. 102.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021473-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021473_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNawotka2021">Nawotka 2021</a>, p. 473.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021477_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNawotka2021">Nawotka 2021</a>, p. 477.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013236-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013236_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 236.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201053-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201053_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 53.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENawotka2021478_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNawotka2021">Nawotka 2021</a>, p. 478.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201062-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201062_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 62.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011145_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreeman2011">Freeman 2011</a>, p. 145.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.1]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.1]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp">3.1</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201063-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201063_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 63.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtmlnote79_footnote_79]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtmlnote79_footnote_79]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#note79">footnote 79</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2aasp_2.14]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html17_4.1.7–14]-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2aasp_2.14]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html17_4.1.7–14]_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJustin1853">Justin 1853</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12">11.12.1–2</a>; <a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2a.asp">2.14</a>; <a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#1.7">4.1.7–14</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html51_4.5.1–8]-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12.1–2]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html51_4.5.1–8]_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJustin1853">Justin 1853</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12">11.12.1–2</a>; <a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#5.1">4.5.1–8</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtml39_17.39.1–2]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Bhtml39_17.39.1–2]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17B*.html#39">17.39.1–2</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54">17.54.1–6</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html11_4.11]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml54_17.54.1–6]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html11_4.11]Arrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#54">17.54.1–6</a>; <a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#11">4.11</a>; <a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp">2.25</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12]Plutarch1919[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html297_4.29.7–9]-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJustin1853[httpwwwforumromanumorgliteraturejustinenglishtrans11html12_11.12]Plutarch1919[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html297_4.29.7–9]_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJustin1853">Justin 1853</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans11.html#12">11.12</a>; <a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1919">Plutarch 1919</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#29.7">4.29.7–9</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook2basp_2.25]_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book2b.asp">2.25</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013280-281-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013280-281_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 280-281.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013xlvii-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013xlvii_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. xlvii.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011168-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreeman2011168_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFreeman2011">Freeman 2011</a>, p. 168.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7]_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp">3.7</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2006Chapter_15_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFox2006">Fox 2006</a>, Chapter 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglish2010Chapter_6_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEnglish2010">English 2010</a>, Chapter 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013285_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 285.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBinder2021468-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBinder2021468_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBinder2021">Binder 2021</a>, p. 468.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrykowski2012Chapter_4-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPietrykowski2012Chapter_4_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPietrykowski2012">Pietrykowski 2012</a>, Chapter 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreasy1851127-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreasy1851127_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreasy1851">Creasy 1851</a>, p. 127.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Dhtml55_17.55]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html914_4.9.14]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Dhtml55_17.55]Quintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html914_4.9.14]_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17D*.html#55">17.55</a>; <a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html#9.14">4.9.14</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013286_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 286.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7–8]-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwebsfororgalexanderarrianbook3aasp_3.7–8]_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book3a.asp">3.7–8</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtmlnote77_footnote_77]-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtmlnote77_footnote_77]_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#note77">footnote 77</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant201561-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant201561_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriant2015">Briant 2015</a>, p. 61.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOuVAgAAQBAJpgPA24_24]Cummings2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsalexandergreat0000cummpage216_216]-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOuVAgAAQBAJpgPA24_24]Cummings2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsalexandergreat0000cummpage216_216]_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWard2014">Ward 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOuVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCummings2004">Cummings 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000cumm/page/216">216</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSYo6c1iEL_4CpgPA282_282–285]-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSYo6c1iEL_4CpgPA282_282–285]_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C&pg=PA282">282–285</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lendering2004-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lendering2004_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLendering2004" class="citation web cs1">Lendering, Jona (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/">"Gaugamela (331 BCE)"</a>. <i>Livius.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230528191737/https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/gaugamela-331-bce/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius.org&rft.atitle=Gaugamela+%28331+BCE%29&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fbattle%2Fgaugamela-331-bce%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYenne201071-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYenne201071_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYenne2010">Yenne 2010</a>, p. 71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss2012113_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrauss2012">Strauss 2012</a>, p. 113.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-LimesReport-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LimesReport_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSteinGregoryKennedy1985" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Auriel; Gregory, Shelagh; Kennedy, David Leslie (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/8959808"><i>Limes Report: His Aerial & Ground Reconnaissances in Iraq & Transjordan in 1938–39</i></a>. Oxford BAR, International series. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86054-349-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86054-349-7"><bdi>978-0-86054-349-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limes+Report%3A+His+Aerial+%26+Ground+Reconnaissances+in+Iraq+%26+Transjordan+in+1938%E2%80%9339&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Oxford+BAR%2C+International+series&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-86054-349-7&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Auriel&rft.au=Gregory%2C+Shelagh&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+David+Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F8959808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-161_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBichler2020">Bichler 2020</a>, p. 160-161.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020160_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBichler2020">Bichler 2020</a>, p. 160.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthington2014188-189-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthington2014188-189_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 188-189.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990212-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990212_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelbrück1990">Delbrück 1990</a>, p. 212. "... [the Persian infantry was] certainly not more than that of the Macedonians, and probably fewer</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchachermeyr1973269_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchachermeyr1973">Schachermeyr 1973</a>, p. 269.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGehrke200438-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGehrke200438_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGehrke2004">Gehrke 2004</a>, p. 38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBichler2020">Bichler 2020</a>, p. 185.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelbrück1990_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelbrück1990">Delbrück 1990</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-187-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBichler2020185-187_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBichler2020">Bichler 2020</a>, p. 185-187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKuttner1995" class="citation book cs1">Kuttner, Ann L. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft309nb1mw;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print"><i>Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. Figure 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynasty+and+Empire+in+the+Age+of+Augustus%3A+The+Case+of+the+Boscoreale+Cups&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=Figure+59&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kuttner&rft.aufirst=Ann+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublishing.cdlib.org%2Fucpressebooks%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft309nb1mw%3Bchunk.id%3D0%3Bdoc.view%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.8]_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php">3.8</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml53_17.53]-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiodorus_Siculus1963[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsDiodorus_Siculus17Chtml53_17.53]_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963">Diodorus Siculus 1963</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html#53">17.53</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html31_31.1]-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1936[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerERomanTextsPlutarchLivesAlexander4html31_31.1]_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1936">Plutarch 1936</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/4.html#31">31.1</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html_4.12.13]-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880[httpspenelopeuchicagoeduThayerLRomanTextsCurtius4html_4.12.13]_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Curtius/4*.html">4.12.13</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee_et_al.2005713–714_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagee_et_al.2005">Magee et al. 2005</a>, pp. 713–714.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA70_70–71]-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA70_70–71]_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanson2007">Hanson 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA70">70–71</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_M._Kistler2007" class="citation book cs1">John M. Kistler (2007). <i>War Elephants</i>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6004-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6004-7"><bdi>978-0-8032-6004-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+Elephants&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-6004-7&rft.au=John+M.+Kistler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880">Quintus Curtius Rufus 1880</a>, 3.2.7: The Hyrcani had mustered 6,000 as excellent horsemen as those nations could furnish, as well as 1,000 Tapurian cavalry. The Derbices had armed 40,000 foot-soldiers ; most of these carried spears tipped with bronze or iron, but some had hardened the wooden shaft by fire.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA61_61]-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXGr16-CxpH8CpgPA61_61]_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanson2007">Hanson 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C&pg=PA61">61</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.13]-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.13]_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php">3.13</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian1893[httpwwwiranchambercomhistoryachaemenidsarrian_battle_of_gaugamelaphp_3.14]_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php">3.14</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArrian18933.15-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArrian18933.15_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArrian1893">Arrian 1893</a>, 3.15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDave_Roos2019" class="citation web cs1">Dave Roos (9 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/alexander-the-great-defeat-persian-empire">"How Alexander the Great Conquered the Persian Empire"</a>. <i>History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=How+Alexander+the+Great+Conquered+the+Persian+Empire&rft.date=2019-09-09&rft.au=Dave+Roos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Falexander-the-great-defeat-persian-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<dl><dt>Ancient sources</dt></dl>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFArrian1893" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> (1893). Chinnock, E. J. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Anabasis_Alexandri" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabasis Alexandri">Anabasis Alexandri</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anabasis+Alexandri&rft.date=1893&rft.au=Arrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDiodorus_Siculus1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (1963). Welles, C. Bradford (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica" title="Bibliotheca historica">Library of History</a></i>. Vol. 17. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99464-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99464-5"><bdi>978-0-674-99464-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Library+of+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99464-5&rft.au=Diodorus+Siculus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1936" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1936). "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander". In Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia">Moralia</a></i>. Vol. 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 379‑487. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99336-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99336-5"><bdi>978-0-674-99336-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Fortune+or+the+Virtue+of+Alexander&rft.btitle=Moralia&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=379%E2%80%91487&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1936&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99336-5&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1919" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1919). "Life of Alexander". In Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Lives</a></i>. Vol. 7. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 707–741. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99110-1"><bdi>978-0-674-99110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Life+of+Alexander&rft.btitle=Lives&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=707-741&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1919&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99110-1&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJustin1853" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a> (1853). <a href="/wiki/John_Selby_Watson" title="John Selby Watson">Watson, John Selby</a> (ed.). <i>Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus</i>. London: Henry G. Bohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epitome+of+the+Philippic+History+of+Pompeius+Trogus&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Henry+G.+Bohn&rft.date=1853&rft.au=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFQuintus_Curtius_Rufus1880" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a> (1880). Vogel, Theodor (ed.). <i>Histories of Alexander the Great</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.date=1880&rft.au=Quintus+Curtius+Rufus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Modern sources</dt></dl>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBichler2020" class="citation book cs1">Bichler, Reinhold (2020). "The Battle of Gaugamela: A Case Study and Some General Methodological Considerations". In Luggin, Johanna; Fink, Sebastian (eds.). <i>Battle descriptions as literary texts: a comparative approach</i>. Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History. Translated by Pramhaas, Franz. Wiesbaden [Heidelberg]: Springer VS. pp. 157–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-27859-5">10.1007/978-3-658-27859-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-27858-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-27858-8"><bdi>978-3-658-27858-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218943609">218943609</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Gaugamela%3A+A+Case+Study+and+Some+General+Methodological+Considerations&rft.btitle=Battle+descriptions+as+literary+texts%3A+a+comparative+approach&rft.place=Wiesbaden+%5BHeidelberg%5D&rft.series=Universal-+und+kulturhistorische+Studien.+Studies+in+Universal+and+Cultural+History&rft.pages=157-189&rft.pub=Springer+VS&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218943609%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-27859-5&rft.isbn=978-3-658-27858-8&rft.aulast=Bichler&rft.aufirst=Reinhold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBinder2021" class="citation book cs1">Binder, Carsten (2021). "From Darius II to Darius III". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ"><i>A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 458–471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119174288" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119174288"><bdi>978-1119174288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Darius+II+to+Darius+III&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Achaemenid+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=458-471&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1119174288&rft.aulast=Binder&rft.aufirst=Carsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqZA7EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBriant2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Briant, Pierre</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j02xBQAAQBAJ"><i>Darius in the shadow of Alexander</i></a>. Translated by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674493094" title="Special:BookSources/9780674493094"><bdi>9780674493094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darius+in+the+shadow+of+Alexander&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780674493094&rft.aulast=Briant&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj02xBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCreasy1851" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Shepherd_Creasy" title="Edward Shepherd Creasy">Creasy, Edward Shepherd</a> (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lWPztx2j46QC&pg=PR11"><i>The Fifteen Decisive Battles of The World : From Marathon to Waterloo</i></a>. Vol. 1. London: Richard Bentley and Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fifteen+Decisive+Battles+of+The+World+%3A+From+Marathon+to+Waterloo&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Richard+Bentley+and+Son&rft.date=1851&rft.aulast=Creasy&rft.aufirst=Edward+Shepherd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlWPztx2j46QC%26pg%3DPR11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCummings2004" class="citation book cs1">Cummings, Lewis Vance (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000cumm"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a></span>. New York: Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-4149-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-4149-1"><bdi>978-0-8021-4149-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-4149-1&rft.aulast=Cummings&rft.aufirst=Lewis+Vance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreat0000cumm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Santis2001" class="citation journal cs1">De Santis, Marc G. (2001). "At The Crossroads of Conquest". <i>Military Heritage</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 46–55, 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Heritage&rft.atitle=At+The+Crossroads+of+Conquest&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=46-55%2C+97&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=De+Santis&rft.aufirst=Marc+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDelbrück1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Hans Delbrück">Delbrück, Hans</a> (1990). <i>History of the Art of War</i>. Translated by Walter J. Renfroe Jr. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6584-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6584-4"><bdi>978-0-8032-6584-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Art+of+War&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-6584-4&rft.aulast=Delbr%C3%BCck&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDoge1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Ayrault_Dodge" title="Theodore Ayrault Dodge">Doge, Theodore Ayrault</a> (1918). <i>Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301</i>. Tales End Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-105-60250-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-105-60250-4"><bdi>978-1-105-60250-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander%3A+A+History+of+the+Origin+and+Growth+of+the+Art+of+War+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Battle+of+Ipsus%2C+B.C.+301&rft.pub=Tales+End+Press&rft.date=1918&rft.isbn=978-1-105-60250-4&rft.aulast=Doge&rft.aufirst=Theodore+Ayrault&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEngels1980" class="citation book cs1">Engels, Donald W. (1980). <i>Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Greek Army</i>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04272-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04272-8"><bdi>978-0-520-04272-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great+and+the+Logistics+of+the+Greek+Army&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04272-8&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=Donald+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEnglish2010" class="citation book cs1">English, Stephen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fbbNDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Field Campaigns of Alexander the Great</i></a>. Pen & Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-066-9"><bdi>978-1-84884-066-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Field+Campaigns+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-066-9&rft.aulast=English&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfbbNDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFarrokh2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaveh_Farrokh" title="Kaveh Farrokh">Farrokh, Kaveh</a> (2007). <i>Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shadows+in+the+desert%3A+ancient+Persia+at+war&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-108-3&rft.aulast=Farrokh&rft.aufirst=Kaveh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFox2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox" title="Robin Lane Fox">Fox, Robin Lane</a> (2006). <i>Alexander the Great</i>. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192598-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192598-1"><bdi>978-0-14-192598-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-14-192598-1&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Robin+Lane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2011" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Philip (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ApzbQNITyPcC"><i>Alexander the Great</i></a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9328-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9328-0"><bdi>978-1-4391-9328-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-9328-0&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DApzbQNITyPcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._F._C._Fuller" title="J. F. C. Fuller">Fuller, J. F. C.</a> (1987). <i>A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto</i>. Vol. 1. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80304-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80304-8"><bdi>978-0-306-80304-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Western+World%3A+From+the+earliest+times+to+the+Battle+of+Lepanto&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80304-8&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGehrke2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hans-Joachim_Gehrke" title="Hans-Joachim Gehrke">Gehrke, Hans-Joachim</a> (2004). "Gaugamela, 1. Oktober 31 v. Chr.". In Förster, S.; Pöhlmann, M.; Walter, D. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fsFwzL5A47MC"><i>Schlachten der Weltgeschichte: von Salamis bis Sinai</i></a> (in German). Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag. pp. 32–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406480973" title="Special:BookSources/9783406480973"><bdi>9783406480973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gaugamela%2C+1.+Oktober+31+v.+Chr.&rft.btitle=Schlachten+der+Weltgeschichte%3A+von+Salamis+bis+Sinai&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=32-47&rft.pub=Deutscher+Taschenbuch-Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9783406480973&rft.aulast=Gehrke&rft.aufirst=Hans-Joachim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfsFwzL5A47MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)" title="Peter Green (historian)">Green, Peter</a> (2013). <i>Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography</i>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95469-4"><bdi>978-0-520-95469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+of+Macedon%2C+356%E2%80%93323+B.C.%3A+A+Historical+Biography&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95469-4&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1993" class="citation book cs1">——— (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree"><i>Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age</i></a></span>. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 1. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08349-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08349-3"><bdi>978-0-520-08349-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+to+Actium%3A+The+Historical+Evolution+of+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.series=Hellenistic+Culture+and+Society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08349-3&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandertoactiu0000gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson, Victor Davies</a> (2007). <i>Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</i>. Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHarbottle2018" class="citation book cs1">Harbottle, Thomas B. (2018). <i>Dictionary of Battles From the Earliest Date to the Present Time</i>. Franklin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0341839699" title="Special:BookSources/978-0341839699"><bdi>978-0341839699</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Battles+From+the+Earliest+Date+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pub=Franklin+Classics&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0341839699&rft.aulast=Harbottle&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMagee_et_al.2005" class="citation cs2">Magee, Peter; Petrie, Cameron; Knox, Richard; Khan, Farid; Thomas, Ken (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs">"The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan"</a>, <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>, vol. 109, pp. 711–741</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Achaemenid+Empire+in+South+Asia+and+Recent+Excavations+in+Akra+in+Northwest+Pakistan&rft.volume=109&rft.pages=711-741&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Magee&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Petrie%2C+Cameron&rft.au=Knox%2C+Richard&rft.au=Khan%2C+Farid&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.brynmawr.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1082%26context%3Darch_pubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNawotka2021" class="citation book cs1">Nawotka, Krzysztof (2021). "The Conquest by Alexander". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qZA7EAAAQBAJ"><i>A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119174288" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119174288"><bdi>978-1119174288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Conquest+by+Alexander&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Achaemenid+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=473-485&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1119174288&rft.aulast=Nawotka&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqZA7EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPietrykowski2012" class="citation book cs1">Pietrykowski, Joseph (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ynp-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4"><i>Great Battles of the Hellenistic World</i></a>. Pen & Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848846883" title="Special:BookSources/9781848846883"><bdi>9781848846883</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Battles+of+the+Hellenistic+World&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781848846883&rft.aulast=Pietrykowski&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dynp-AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSchachermeyr1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Schachermeyr" title="Fritz Schachermeyr">Schachermeyr, Fritz</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexanderdergros0031scha/"><i>Alexander der Große: Das Problem seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Wirkens</i></a> (in German). Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783700100003" title="Special:BookSources/9783700100003"><bdi>9783700100003</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+der+Gro%C3%9Fe%3A+Das+Problem+seiner+Pers%C3%B6nlichkeit+und+seines+Wirkens&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9783700100003&rft.aulast=Schachermeyr&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexanderdergros0031scha%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_S._Strauss" title="Barry S. Strauss">Strauss, Barry S.</a> (2012). <i>Masters of Command: Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and the Genius of Leadership</i>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-6448-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-6448-8"><bdi>978-1-4391-6448-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+Command%3A+Alexander%2C+Hannibal%2C+Caesar%2C+and+the+Genius+of+Leadership&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-6448-8&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Barry+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVan_der_Spek2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._J._van_der_Spek" class="mw-redirect" title="R. J. van der Spek">Van der Spek, R. J.</a> (2003). "Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship". In Henkelman, W.; Kuhrt, A. (eds.). <i>A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg</i>. Achaemenid History. Vol. 13. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. pp. 289–342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6258-413-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6258-413-0"><bdi>978-90-6258-413-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Darius+III%2C+Alexander+the+Great+and+Babylonian+Scholarship&rft.btitle=A+Persian+Perspective%3A+Essays+in+Memory+of+Heleen+Sancisi-Weerdenburg&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Achaemenid+History&rft.pages=289-342&rft.pub=Nederlands+Instituut+voor+het+Nabije+Oosten&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-6258-413-0&rft.aulast=Van+der+Spek&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWard2014" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Steven R. (2014). <i>Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces</i>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-032-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-032-3"><bdi>978-1-62616-032-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immortal%3A+A+Military+History+of+Iran+and+Its+Armed+Forces&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62616-032-3&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Steven+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWarry1998" class="citation book cs1">Warry, John (1998). <i>Warfare in the Classical World</i>. Barnes & Noble. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-1696-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-1696-0"><bdi>978-0-7607-1696-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Classical+World&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7607-1696-0&rft.aulast=Warry&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2014" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ"><i>By the spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the rise and fall of the Macedonian empire</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992986-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992986-3"><bdi>978-0-19-992986-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+the+spear%3A+Philip+II%2C+Alexander+the+Great%2C+and+the+rise+and+fall+of+the+Macedonian+empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-992986-3&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvnGVAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFYenne2010" class="citation book cs1">Yenne, Bill (2010). <i>Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General</i>. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61915-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61915-9"><bdi>978-0-230-61915-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+Lessons+From+History%27s+Undefeated+General&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61915-9&rft.aulast=Yenne&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMarciakSobiechPirowski2020" class="citation journal cs1">Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fklio-2020-1005">"Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela"</a>. <i>Klio</i>. <b>102</b> (2): 536–559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fklio-2020-1005">10.1515/klio-2020-1005</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226279004">226279004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Klio&rft.atitle=Alexander+the+Great%27s+Route+to+Gaugamela+and+Arbela&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=536-559&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fklio-2020-1005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226279004%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Marciak&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft.au=Sobiech%2C+Marcin&rft.au=Pirowski%2C+Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fklio-2020-1005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMarciakSzypułaSobiechPirowski2021" class="citation journal cs1">Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". <i>Iraq</i>. <b>83</b>: 87–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Firq.2021.11">10.1017/irq.2021.11</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240824299">240824299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Gaugamela+and+the+Question+of+Visibility+on+the+Battlefield&rft.volume=83&rft.pages=87-103&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Firq.2021.11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240824299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Marciak&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Szypu%C5%82a%2C+B.&rft.au=Sobiech%2C+M.&rft.au=Pirowski%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMarciakWójcikowskiMorandi_BonacossiSobiech2021" class="citation journal cs1">Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". <i>Studia Iranica</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 7–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2FSI.50.1.3291169">10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Iranica&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Gaugamela+in+the+Navkur+Plain+in+the+Context+of+the+Madedonian+and+Persian+Art+of+Warfare&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-68&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2FSI.50.1.3291169&rft.aulast=Marciak&rft.aufirst=Micha%C5%82&rft.au=W%C3%B3jcikowski%2C+Robert+S.&rft.au=Morandi+Bonacossi%2C+Daniele&rft.au=Sobiech%2C+Marcin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Gaugamela&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFrg6Jo4gXw&feature=PlayList&p=68CB508ACE736674&index=6"><span class="plainlinks">Video : Animated reconstruction of Battle of Gaugamela</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWelman" class="citation web cs1">Welman, Nick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pothos.org/content/indexe751.html?page=major-battles#gaugamela">"Major Battles – Gaugamela"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Major+Battles+%E2%80%93+Gaugamela&rft.aulast=Welman&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pothos.org%2Fcontent%2Findexe751.html%3Fpage%3Dmajor-battles%23gaugamela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Gaugamela" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html">Livius.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160909034556/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander09.html">Archived</a> 9 September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> tells the story of Alexander and quotes original sources. Favors a reconstruction of the battle which heavily privileges the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html">Livius.org has a scholarly edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190124102122/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/astronomical_diary-330_01.html">Archived</a> 24 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the Babylonian Astronomical Diary concerning the battle and Alexander's entry into Babylon by <a href="/wiki/R.J._van_der_Spek" class="mw-redirect" title="R.J. van der Spek">R.J. van der Spek</a>.</li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#DEB887"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background:#DEB887;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template talk:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background:#DEB887;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background:#DEB887;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire"><img alt="Achaemenid Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/15px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/23px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/30px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Achaemenid Empire">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Falcon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/150px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/225px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/300px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Lion_Rhyton" title="Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton">Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_coinage" title="Achaemenid coinage">Achaemenid coinage</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana_hoard" title="Apadana hoard">Apadana hoard</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Danake" title="Danake">Danake</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Palace of Darius in Susa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Tomb of Cyrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persian_column" title="Persian column">Persian column</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_at_Xanthos" title="Tombs at Xanthos">Tombs at Xanthos</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Harpy_Tomb" title="Harpy Tomb">Harpy Tomb</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nereid_Monument" title="Nereid Monument">Nereid Monument</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">Tomb of Payava</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I's inscription at Van">Xerxes I's inscription at Van</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ganjnameh" title="Ganjnameh">Ganjnameh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Revolt">Persian Revolt</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li>Lydian-Persian Wars
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" title="Battle of Pteria">Battle of Pteria</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Siege of Sardis (547 BC)</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First conquest of Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign of Darius I</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">Siege of Naxos (499 BC)</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">Siege of Eretria</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)" title="Babylonian revolts (484 BC)">Babylonian revolts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Battle of Cyzicus</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Battle of Cunaxa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">Second conquest of Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Battle of Gaugamela</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_water" title="Earth and water">Earth and water</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Capitals
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Babylon#Persian_conquest" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">Satrapies</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts of the Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">Chapar Khaneh</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarium" title="Angarium">Angarium</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarum" title="Angarum">Angarum</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Dynasties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pharnacid_dynasty" title="Pharnacid dynasty">Pharnacid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty" title="Mithridatic dynasty">Mithridatic</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathid_dynasty" title="Ariarathid dynasty">Ariarathid</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontid</a>
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Achaemenid_clans" title="Seven Achaemenid clans">Seven Achaemenid clans</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xanthian_Obelisk" title="Xanthian Obelisk">Xanthian Obelisk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_calendar" title="Cappadocian calendar">Cappadocian calendar</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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